The rapid urbanization of Sub-Saharan African cities is accompanied by the massive expansion of peri-urban

areas, which are often characterized by limited access to hydraulic and sanitation infrastructure. In response,

many households rely on individual or community boreholes to obtain water. However, these boreholes are

frequently constructed under inadequate technical and regulatory conditions, raising doubts about whether the

Keywords : potable water, drinking water, individual boreholes, peri-urban areas, water quality

Sub-Saharan Africa is experiencing rapid and often unplanned urbanization, marked by the accelerated

expansion of urban peripheries. These peri-urban areas — which accommodate a significant share of urban

population growth — often remain poorly equipped with essential infrastructure, particularly water supply and

sanitation networks. This structural dynamic increases the vulnerability of populations to water-related and

sanitary risks, forcing many households to resort to alternative water supply solutions, among which domestic

boreholes play a central role [1].

In many urban agglomerations, individual and community boreholes have become the main source of “local”

water supply : they provide relatively immediate and autonomous access to water in the absence of, or as a

From a normative and health standpoint, the notion of “potable water” is associated with strict requirements for

safety and compliance with guideline values defined by national authorities and the World Health Organization

(WHO). These requirements involve analytical controls (physico-chemical and bacteriological) and quality

management systems (monitoring, Water Safety Plans) to certify the absence of health hazards. In many peri-

urban contexts, such conditions of control and certification are not met for most private boreholes — which

raises both terminological and policy issues : referring to such water as “potable” when it is neither analyzed nor

guaranteed creates a false sense of safety [3].

The technical shortcomings of boreholes that explain this gap between use and standards are multiple and well

documented. First, borehole depth: accessing aquifers protected by impermeable layers often requires deeper

drilling than what is empirically achieved; manual or shallow boreholes tend to tap vulnerable horizons exposed

From a governance perspective, the peri-urban situation reveals a double deficit: on one hand, limited

institutional capacity to control and regulate the growing number of private boreholes; on the other, the

inadequacy of risk management instruments (for example, the implementation of Water Safety Plans – WSPs

for small-scale groundwater systems) in informal contexts. Recent studies suggest adapting risk-based

approaches (WSPs, transition management, integrated water resource management) to better protect

groundwater resources in peri-urban environments and to prioritize pragmatic interventions — such as physical

protection of borehole heads, safety distances, targeted analyses, and domestic treatments [4].

In light of these realities, the dichotomy between “potable water” (a normative status) and “drinking water” (a

practical reality) acquires analytical and operational significance. The concept of “drinking water” allows the

identification of an intermediate category — water that is effectively consumed but not certified — and helps

The methodological approach adopted in this article is based on a cross-analysis combining (i) data from

Gassina’s (2023) doctoral thesis on N’Djamena’s 9th district, and (ii) a comparative review of recent studies on

the quality of peri-urban borehole water in Sub-Saharan Africa.

This approach follows a qualitative and analytical-comparative perspective aimed at confronting local empirical

data with a regional scientific corpus in order to clarify the conceptual and operational status of “drinking water”

versus “potable water.”

The objective is not merely descriptive but hermeneutic and normative : to question the uses and social

representations of water based on technical indicators (depth, sealing, microbiological quality, proximity to

latrines) in order to redefine relevant analytical categories within the peri-urban African context.

[3,5].

Internationally, the World Health Organization (WHO) has published Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality

defining reference thresholds for numerous parameters to ensure that water is genuinely safe for consumption

[3,5].

At the national level, the legislation of several African countries (including the Chadian Water Code and Société

Tchadienne des Eaux) excludes the qualification of “potable” for water not subjected to appropriate testing and

controls; potable water implies certified conformity, traceability, and ongoing quality monitoring.

The term drinking water refers to water that is actually consumed by households, regardless of whether it meets

potability standards. In other words, it is a category of use rather than a certified quality status. It is often used

protection are often lacking [2,4].

The distinction is crucial : calling water “potable” when it has not been analyzed or monitored creates a false

sense of safety. Conversely, labeling it “drinking water” acknowledges its use while implicitly signaling that it

may not be entirely safe [2,4].

This conceptual nuance is particularly relevant since the literature shows that domestic borehole water in peri-

urban contexts often displays technical or sanitary deficiencies—leading to the following discussion.

Numerous studies conducted in Sub-Saharan Africa reveal that individual or semi-collective boreholes often fail

to comply with construction and protection standards necessary to ensure “potable” water quality. The most

• Lack or insufficiency of sealing/cementation: Proper casing or cementation of the upper borehole section is

essential to isolate the usable aquifer from potentially polluted shallow layers (runoff, latrines, pits). The

absence of such protection favors direct contaminant infiltration [2].

• Improper siting relative to pollution sources : A minimum distance between boreholes and latrines, septic

tanks, garbage dumps, or runoff zones is widely recommended. However, field studies often find this

distance not respected—for example, in western Cameroon, the average latrine-to-borehole distance was

8.7 m, far below recommended standards [2].

• Inadequate borehole head protection : The cover, concrete slab around the casing, check valve, distance

from infiltration sources, and soil slope for runoff drainage are often neglected, further increasing

vulnerability [2].

(from latrine effluents), metals (iron, manganese), or other undesirable constituents. A systematic review in

Ethiopia and Kenya found that chemical risks are often overlooked under the assumption that groundwater

is “safe” [6].

• Emerging pollutants: A study in Kabwe (Zambia) detected traces of pharmaceutical residues in urban

groundwater, underscoring the complexity of contamination in urban and peri-urban zones [6].

• Correlation between aquifer vulnerability and water quality: The study Urban Groundwater Quality… found

that basement aquifers with low storage are particularly vulnerable to contamination, making it unlikely that

extracted water qualifies as “potable” [5,6].

The use of untreated or uncontrolled borehole water carries significant health risks. For example: