INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025  
Challenges and Issues of Access to Water and Animation in Refugee  
Camps in Eastern Chad  
Gassina Pierre1, Kadessou Djarmatna2, Abdelkerim Tchinsou3 , Akoilet Joy4  
Departement of Water management ressources, LM International/LM Chad  
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51584/IJRIAS.2025.10100000162  
Received: 21 October 2025; Accepted: 28 October 2025; Published: 20 November 2025  
ABSTRACT  
Analysis of August and September data on water supply and sanitation in refugee camps in Eastern Chad  
reveals significant disparities between provinces and individual sites. Average water access ranges from 4  
L/p/d to 18 L/p/d, compared to the Sphere standard of 15 L/p/d. Only a few camps meet or approach this  
minimum, while the majority remain below the threshold, exposing populations to elevated health risks.  
Sanitation coverage also varies widely. Camps in Ouaddaï generally show acceptable conditions, whereas  
Wadi-Fira exhibits critical deficits, with up to 63–71 persons per latrine. Sila demonstrates relative stability,  
but some sites still experience moderate shortages.  
Monitoring of water quality via residual chlorine indicates notable improvement across provinces between  
August and September, particularly following the cholera outbreak in Dougui. Increases in free residual  
chlorine at both reservoir and household levels reflect enhanced microbiological protection, although some  
camps remain below WHO thresholds due to temporary chlorine shortages or operational constraints.  
Keywords— Water supply ; Refugee camps; sanitation Microbiological quality; chlorination  
INTRODUCTION  
Since 2022, the WASH (Water, Sanitation and Hygiene) sector has been one of the priority areas of  
humanitarian response in Eastern Chad. Under the coordination of the United Nations High Commissioner for  
Refugees (UNHCR) and in partnership with UN agencies and several NGOs, WASH interventions are  
primarily concentrated in the provinces of Ouaddaï, Sila, Wadi Fira, and Ennedi-Est—main areas receiving  
refugees from Sudan [1], [2].  
The massive and recurrent influx of refugees is directly linked to the escalation of the crisis in Darfur and the  
intensification of intercommunal violence between 2020 and 2023, which triggered ongoing cross-border  
migration waves. These population movements have placed considerable pressure on already limited local  
services (water access, sanitation systems, health capacities), further exacerbated by structural poverty and  
climatic shocks such as floods and rainfall variability [3], [4], [5].  
From a hydrological and climatic perspective, Eastern Chad presents a Sahelian, semi-arid profile  
characterized by low and irregular rainfall (200–400 mm/year depending on the area), high evapotranspiration,  
and limited groundwater recharge. These conditions make sustainable management of surface and  
groundwater resources particularly challenging and expose both host and refugee populations to chronic water  
insecurity [6], [7], [8].  
Despite ongoing interventions (borehole drilling, water supply systems, water trucking, distribution of hygiene  
kits, and latrine construction), effective access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation facilities remains  
insufficient in many camps and sites. Field observations and situation reports indicate that several sites fail to  
meet minimum humanitarian standards (≥15 L/person/day; 1 latrine/20 people) and that infrastructures are  
often outdated, undersized, or quickly overused [9], [10], [11].  
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025  
The public health consequences are well documented: outbreaks of Hepatitis E (Ouaddaï, 2024 and 2025) and  
episodes of acute diarrhea or cholera linked to WASH deficiencies have been reported in several camps.  
Medical organizations have identified insufficient access to safe water and sanitation as direct aggravating  
factors for these epidemic outbreaks [12], [13], [14].  
Beyond health impacts, inadequate WASH services affect schooling (particularly girls’ absenteeism), maternal  
health, protection (increased risks of exploitation and gender-based violence), and the dignity of displaced  
populations and host communities. Gender and protection reports emphasize the need to integrate gender-  
sensitive approaches and ensure basic services that strengthen the resilience of vulnerable households [15],  
[16].  
Among the most frequently cited operational constraints are the high cost and logistical complexity of water  
trucking, shortages of spare parts and maintenance materials for pumps and boreholes, limited accessibility  
during rainy seasons or climatic crises, and insufficient long-term funding. These limitations underscore the  
need to promote mixed approaches, including infrastructure rehabilitation, local capacity building, and the  
adoption of context-appropriate solutions (solar-powered pumps, community water storage and filtration,  
behavioral hygiene programs) [17], [18], [19].  
In this context, humanitarian actors highlight the importance of an integrated approach combining emergency,  
development, and resilience components, consistent with UNDP strategic frameworks and Chad’s  
Humanitarian Response Plan [20], [21], [22]. This approach aims to enhance the sustainability of WASH  
services in a region where humanitarian, environmental, and socioeconomic crises intersect.  
METHODOLOGY  
The assessment of water supply conditions in refugee camps in Eastern Chad is based on a mixed-methods  
approach combining direct field observation and documentary analysis.  
Data Sources  
The main source of information comes from the compilation and analysis of weekly reports produced by LM  
International, the lead implementing partner for WASH activities. These reports, covering the period from  
August to September, provide data on distributed water volumes, number of beneficiaries, condition of water  
infrastructure, and service interruptions. The data were consolidated to calculate average per capita access  
ratios (L/person/day) and to assess compliance with the 2023 Sphere Humanitarian Standards.  
Field Observation  
Direct field observation was a key step in the data collection process. Visits were conducted in several camps  
(Farchana, Bredjing, Goz-Amir, Touloum) to verify the functionality of infrastructures, identify critical points  
in the network (breakdowns, leaks, illegal connections), and engage with water management committees and  
beneficiaries. These findings validated and complemented the documentary data, providing a more detailed  
understanding of technical realities and local constraints.  
Data Processing and Analysis  
The data were aggregated and compared against humanitarian standards to assess the level of water access,  
disparities among camps, and weekly variations. The analysis also considered explanatory factors such as  
borehole capacity, energy availability, logistical constraints, and the performance of WASH partners.  
III. General Situation of Water Supply  
Analysis of the monthly reports on drinking water supply for August and September reveals significant  
disparities among refugee camps in Eastern Chad. These disparities concern both the quantitative availability  
of water, the quality of the service provided, and the regularity of distribution.  
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ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025  
Tableau 1 : Monthly Water Supply Ratios in Refugee Camps of Eastern Chad (August–September) and  
Comparison with Minimum Humanitarian Standards  
Camps  
Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio Average  
W29 W30 W31 W32 W33 W34 W35 W36 Ratio /  
Period  
K-Moura  
Gaga  
13  
11  
14  
14  
9
14  
12  
14  
12  
10  
12  
10  
13  
17  
6
15  
11  
14  
11  
9
15  
9
15  
8
15  
9
15  
12  
14  
12  
11  
9
15  
17  
14  
13  
11  
9
15  
11  
14  
12  
10  
11  
12  
15  
10  
7
Bredjing  
Treguine  
Aboutengué  
Metché  
14  
11  
9
14  
11  
10  
9
14  
12  
10  
9
14  
11  
9
12  
12  
16  
9
10  
12  
16  
7
Arkoum  
Dougui  
12  
16  
9
12  
16  
9
12  
16  
9
12  
16  
5
Farchana  
Alacha  
18  
5
7
7
6
6
8
9
Iridimi  
8
7
9
8
8
8
8
8
8
Touloum  
Amnaback  
Kounoungo  
Milé  
5
5
8
7
8
7
4
4
6
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
4
13  
11  
9
12  
11  
7
13  
11  
8
14  
12  
7
14  
11  
12  
7
14  
11  
12  
6
13  
12  
11  
6
13  
12  
11  
4
13  
11  
10  
6
Koursigué  
Ouré Cassoni  
7
5
4
7
Djabal  
Goz-Amir  
Zabout  
Kerfi  
13  
10  
10  
19  
12  
8
13  
19  
10  
20  
13  
19  
10  
20  
12  
19  
10  
20  
12  
10  
10  
20  
6
6
11  
14  
10  
18  
12  
10  
10  
12  
10  
10  
10  
28  
The average water access ratios (in liters per person per day) vary considerably from one site to another,  
ranging from 4 L/p/d in Amnaback camp to 18 L/p/d in Kerfi, compared with the minimum humanitarian  
standard of 15 L/p/d as defined by the Sphere Standards (2023).  
Overall, only a few camps—such as Kerfi (18 L/p/d), Dougui (15 L/p/d), Bredjing (14 L/p/d), and Goz-Amir  
(14 L/p/d) —manage to meet or come close to the humanitarian threshold.  
In contrast, the majority of the other camps face persistent deficits, with average values below 12 L/p/d,  
particularly Alacha (7 L/p/d), Touloum (6 L/p/d), Ouré Cassoni (6 L/p/d), and Amnaback (4 L/p/d).  
These disparities reflect an unequal distribution of water resources among camps and point to multiple  
structural constraints:  
Limited capacity of boreholes and distribution networks ;  
Recurrent breakdowns of pumping systems and generators;  
Logistical challenges related to water trucking in the most remote area  
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From a temporal perspective, the week-to-week fluctuations (ratios W29 to W36) indicate instability in water  
production and distribution, linked to fuel availability, weather conditions, and the operational capacity of  
WASH partners.  
Overall, less than 30% of the assessed camps meet the minimum recommended standards, confirming that  
equitable access to safe drinking water remains a major challenge for the region. These disparities expose  
refugee populations to heightened health risks, particularly waterborne diseases such as cholera, diarrhea, and  
hepatitis E, and highlight the need to strengthen water planning and preventive maintenance of infrastructure.  
1 – Camps in Ouaddaï Province  
Analysis of data from August and September (Figure 1) reveals an overall deficit and instability in water  
supply  
across  
the  
refugee  
camps  
in  
Ouaddaï  
Province.  
Average water access ratios range between 11 and 15 liters per person per day, which remain below the  
recommended humanitarian standard of 15 L/p/d (Sphere, 2023).  
Figure 1. Levels of Water Access in Refugee Camps of Wadi Fira  
The camps of K-Moura (15 L/p/d) and Bredjing (14 L/p/d) show relatively stable levels, though slightly below  
the standard, while Arkoum (11–12 L/p/d) remains in the lower range, indicating an insufficient yet consistent  
water supply.  
In contrast, the camps of Dougui (9–16 L/p/d), Gaga (8–17 L/p/d), Farchana (5–18 L/p/d), and Metché (9–14  
L/p/d) display significant fluctuations, reflecting strong instability in water provision. These variations  
highlight a growing dependence on generator functionality and water trucking deliveries.  
The main causes identified for these deficits include aging water infrastructure, frequent generator  
breakdowns, water theft (notably in Farchana) or leakages along distribution lines, as well as insufficient  
storage capacity and fuel availability.  
None of the assessed camps reach the optimal threshold of 20 L/p/d, underscoring a structurally deficient and  
irregular situation across the Ouaddaï Province.  
2 – Camps in Wadi Fira Province  
Examination of Figure 2 shows that the water situation in the Wadi Fira camps is significantly more critical  
than in Ouaddaï.  
Several sites record water access levels well below the minimum humanitarian threshold.  
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)  
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Figure 1 : Levels of Water Access in Refugee Camps of Wadi Fira  
The camps of Amnabak (2–5 L/p/d), Touloum (4–8 L/p/d), and Ouré Cassoni (4–7 L/p/d) are in a  
humanitarian emergency situation, with available water volumes covering less than one-third of basic daily  
needs.  
The Iridimi camp (8 L/p/d) remains in a state of chronic deficit, reflecting a structural and long-term shortage.  
The camps of Kounoungo (12–14 L/p/d) and Milé (11–12 L/p/d) show slightly higher levels but still fall below  
the minimum standard, while Koursigué (7–12 L/p/d) exhibits significant week-to-week variations.  
This situation illustrates a marked heterogeneity in water distribution within the province, where  
hydrogeological constraints, equipment breakdowns, and logistical limitations (fuel shortages, maintenance  
issues, and distance from water sources) represent the main barriers to adequate coverage of needs.  
In summary, Amnabak, Touloum, and Ouré Cassoni constitute priority intervention zones, while Kounoungo  
and Milé, though slightly better supplied, still require corrective measures to stabilize water provision.  
3 – Camps in Sila Province  
Monitoring data from the August–September period (Figure 3) indicate that the drinking water supply situation  
in the Sila Province camps remains mixed, with only one site meeting humanitarian standards while several  
others experience varying degrees of shortfall.  
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Figure 2 : Figure 2. Levels of Water Access in Refugee Camps of Sila  
The Kerfi camp (10–28 L/p/d) shows the best indicators in the province, consistently reaching and at times  
exceeding the Sphere standard of 15 L/p/d. This performance can be attributed to functional hydraulic  
infrastructure, proximity to water sources, and effective coordination of water distribution operations. Kerfi  
thus represents an example of operational stability within an otherwise fragile regional context.  
Conversely, the Djabal (12–13 L/p/d) and Goz-Amir (12–19 L/p/d) camps remain below or close to the  
recommended threshold, while showing high weekly variability in distributed volumes. The case of Goz-Amir  
illustrates structural instability in water production, likely linked to intermittent generator failures and  
fluctuating fuel supply.  
The Zabout camp (10 L/p/d) is characterized by a chronic and persistent deficit, reflecting insufficient  
pumping and storage capacity. This deficit exposes refugee populations to heightened health risks, particularly  
during periods of intense heat when water demand significantly increases.  
Overall, the Sila Province displays substantial internal disparities: one compliant camp (Kerfi), two moderately  
deficient camps (Djabal and Goz-Amir), and one camp in a concerning situation (Zabout). These results  
underscore the need to strengthen preventive maintenance of hydraulic facilities, optimize energy management  
at pumping stations, and establish contingency measures to secure water supply in high-risk areas.  
IV – General Sanitation Situation  
Analysis of August–September sanitation data for refugee camps in Eastern Chad reveals considerable  
variability in access to household and communal latrines across provinces.  
The ratios, expressed as number of persons per latrine, highlight significant deviations from the Sphere Project  
(2023) humanitarian standard, set at 1 latrine per 20 persons.  
Some localities meet or approach the standard, while others show pronounced deficits, indicating urgent needs  
for infrastructure upgrades and maintenance.  
1 – Camps in Ouaddaï Province  
Data (Figure 4) show a generally acceptable but heterogeneous sanitation situation in the Ouaddaï camps.  
Figure 3 : Sanitation Coverage and Latrine Access in Refugee Camps of Ouaddaï Province  
Sites such as K-Moura (23), Metché (28), Arkoum (26), and Farchana (23) have ratios slightly above the  
standard, suggesting moderate pressure on sanitation infrastructure.  
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Alacha (19) meets the compliance threshold, while Aboutengué (13), Dougui (15), Bredjing (11), Treguine  
(10), and Gaga (8) show favorable ratios, reflecting satisfactory access to latrines.  
Several factors explain this relative improvement:  
The planned relocation of some populations to better-equipped areas ;  
The gradual decommissioning of emergency latrines, replaced with more durable models;  
The construction of new family latrines ;  
And the involvement of local cooperatives in the production of slabs and sanitation materials.  
These initiatives have significantly improved sanitation coverage, particularly in camps affected by the 2025  
cholera outbreak.  
2 – Camps in Wadi Fira Province  
The situation in the Wadi Fira camps (Figure 5) reveals major disparities between sites.  
Figure 4 : Sanitation Coverage and Latrine Access in Refugee Camps of Wadi Fira Province  
The camps of Koursigué (10–14), Milé (19–22), and Kounoungo (17–18) comply with or approach  
humanitarian standards, indicating a generally satisfactory coverage level.  
However, Amnabak (27–32) shows a moderate deficit, while Iridimi (37–50), Touloum (57), and Ouré  
Cassoni (63–71) are in critical condition, with ratios three to four times higher than the recommended  
standard.  
These latter sites therefore represent the most severe sanitation gaps in the region, exposing populations to  
high health vulnerability and increased risk of waterborne disease transmission. Contributing factors include  
overcrowding, advanced degradation of existing latrines, insufficient resources for desludging and  
maintenance, and limited space for new constructions.  
3.3 – Camps in Sila Province  
In the Sila Province (Figure 6), the situation appears more stable than in Wadi Fira, although disparities persist  
among camps.  
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Figure 5 : Sanitation Coverage and Latrine Access in Refugee Camps of Sila Province  
The sites of Zabout (10), Djabal (12–13), and Kerfi (14–18) are broadly compliant with humanitarian  
standards, reflecting good sanitation coverage and adequate infrastructure management.  
Conversely, the Goz-Amir camp (24) slightly exceeds the standard, indicating a moderate deficit that requires  
targeted reinforcement measures to prevent deterioration.  
This relative balance in Sila can be attributed to better infrastructure planning, stabilized refugee populations,  
and effective coordination among WASH partners.  
However, regular maintenance and replacement of aging latrines remain essential to sustain these gains.  
V- Monitoring of Water Quality through Chlorination  
Access to safe drinking water is essential for public health, particularly in the refugee camps of Eastern Chad,  
where populations are exposed to waterborne diseases. Chlorination is the main disinfection method, and free  
residual chlorine serves as an indicator of the microbiological quality of water. According to WHO standards,  
a concentration ≥ 0.3 mg/L ensures effective disinfection, while a lower value indicates a risk of  
contamination. Monitoring residual chlorine is therefore a key indicator of water quality.  
The results by province show the evolution of this situation between August and September.  
1- Ouaddaï Province  
Camps concerned: Moura, Gaga, Bredjing, Treguine, Aboutengué, Metché, Arkoum, Dougui, Farchana,  
Alacha.  
Camp  
W29–S32 (August)  
60% > 0.3 mg/L  
W33–W36 (September)  
100% > 0.3 mg/L  
Evolution  
+40%  
Moura  
Gaga  
100% > 0.3 mg/L  
40–50% > 0.3 mg/L  
40–50% > 0.3 mg/L  
80–85% > 0.3 mg/L  
75–80% > 0.3 mg/L  
80–85% > 0.3 mg/L  
60–70% > 0.3 mg/L  
70–80% > 0.3 mg/L  
Slight decrease  
+30%  
Bredjing  
Treguine  
+35%  
Aboutengué 50–60% > 0.3 mg/L  
Metché 45% > 0.3 mg/L  
Stable  
+35%  
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Arkoum  
Dougui  
Farchana  
Alacha  
50% > 0.3 mg/L  
40% > 0.3 mg/L  
50% > 0.3 mg/L  
65% > 0.3 mg/L  
70–80% > 0.3 mg/L  
70–75% > 0.3 mg/L  
75% > 0.3 mg/L  
+30%  
+35%  
+25%  
+5%  
70% > 0.3 mg/L  
In August, the majority of households showed a residual chlorine level < 0.3 mg/L, indicating insufficient  
disinfection. The outbreak of cholera in Dougui at the beginning of September led to a large-scale  
reinforcement of WASH activities, including more systematic chlorination in both storage tanks and at the  
household level.  
This resulted in a clear and widespread improvement, with several camps exceeding 75% compliance. Despite  
a few isolated decreases (Gaga), WASH control now ensures better microbiological protection.  
2- Wadi-Fira Province  
Camps concerned: Iridimi, Touloum, Amnaback, Kounoungou, Milé, Koursigué.  
Camp  
W29–S32 (August)  
85% > 0.3 mg/L  
70% > 0.3 mg/L  
65% > 0.3 mg/L  
40% > 0.3 mg/L  
65% > 0.3 mg/L  
40% > 0.3 mg/L  
0% > 0.3 mg/L  
W33–W36 (September)  
90% > 0.3 mg/L  
75% > 0.3 mg/L  
70% > 0.3 mg/L  
60% > 0.3 mg/L  
75% > 0.3 mg/L  
50% > 0.3 mg/L  
30% > 0.3 mg/L  
Evolution  
+5%  
Iridimi  
Touloum  
Amnaback  
Kounoungou  
Milé  
+5%  
+5%  
+20%  
+10%  
+10%  
+30%  
Koursigué  
Ouré Cassoni  
The camps of Iridimi and Touloum maintained good chlorination, while Kounoungou and Koursigué remained  
below WHO standards due to a temporary chlorine stock shortage.  
The case of Ouré Cassoni is particularly noteworthy: there was no residual chlorine in August, followed by  
30% compliance by mid-September, indicating  
a
rapid and effective technical intervention.  
Overall, the province shows significant progress thanks to cholera emergency measures (enhanced  
chlorination, WASH monitoring, increased supervision), leading to a substantial reduction in microbiological  
risks.  
3- Sila Province  
Camps concerned: Djabal, Goz-Amir, Zabout, Kerfi.  
Camp  
Djabal  
Goz-Amir  
Zabout  
Kerfi  
W29–S32 (August)  
W33–W36 (September)  
60–70% > 0.3 mg/L  
70–80% > 0.3 mg/L  
70–75% > 0.3 mg/L  
70% > 0.3 mg/L  
Evolution  
+70%  
+75%  
50% > 0.3 mg/L  
0% > 0.3 mg/L  
+25%  
+70%  
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Sila Province shows a late but significant improvement beginning in September. The Kerfi and Zabout camps  
improved rapidly, while Djabal and Goz-Amir reached satisfactory chlorination levels. These results reflect  
better WASH coordination and increased water treatment intensity in response to the epidemic threat.  
DISCUSSION  
The analysis highlights significant disparities in access to water and sanitation across refugee camps in Eastern  
Chad, resulting from structural constraints, operational limitations, and harsh environmental conditions.  
Less than 30% of camps meet the minimum humanitarian threshold of 15 L/p/d ([9]). Camps in Wadi Fira  
(Amnabak, Touloum, Ouré Cassoni) face acute water shortages, while Kerfi and Dougui perform better due to  
more  
stable  
energy  
management  
and  
functional  
infrastructure.  
These disparities—confirmed by the WASH Cluster ([10]) and the World Bank ([8])—reflect the sector’s  
dependence on energy availability and borehole maintenance. The arid climate, low aquifer recharge, and high  
evaporation rates ([6]; [7]) further weaken the system, making it essential to adopt sustainable solutions,  
including solar pumping and diversification of water sources.  
Access to latrines also varies widely between camps. Some (Bredjing, Koursigué, Kerfi) meet standards, while  
others (Touloum, Ouré Cassoni) exceed one latrine for 60–70 persons, exposing populations to elevated health  
risks (Hepatitis E, Cholera – [12]; [13]).  
Lack of maintenance, overuse of facilities, and demographic growth exacerbate these vulnerabilities.  
WASH challenge are further compounded by weak inter-agency coordination and insufficient long-term  
funding. The UNDP ([22]) and UNHCR ([19]) advocate for an integrated approach linking emergency,  
development, and resilience.  
Finally, gender considerations ([15]) remain critical: women and girls are disproportionately affected by the  
lack of facilities and the related safety and hygiene risks.  
CONCLUSION  
The assessment of water supply, sanitation, and water quality in Eastern Chad refugee camps highlights  
persistent disparities and vulnerabilities. While some camps achieved the minimum humanitarian standards  
through strengthened WASH interventions, most remain below safe thresholds, exposing residents to  
waterborne diseases. The results underscore the need for sustained efforts in infrastructure maintenance, water  
quality monitoring, and community engagement. Targeted, context-specific strategies are essential to gradually  
ensure reliable access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation across all camps.  
ACKNOWLEDGMENT  
The authors extend their sincere appreciation to the supervisors for their expert guidance, critical insights, and  
continuous support throughout the development of this study. Special acknowledgment is also given to the  
hygiene promoters, community liaison officers, and household heads who generously contributed their time  
and shared their perspectives on WASH conditions within their respective camps. Their collaboration and trust  
were instrumental in the successful completion of this research.  
REFERENCES  
1. UNHCR. (2024). Operational Update – Sudan Crisis in Chad: WASH and Shelter Response (April 2024).  
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. https://data.unhcr.org/en/situations/chad  
2. UNICEF. (2024). Humanitarian Situation Report No. 13 – Eastern Chad (Jan–Dec 2024). United Nations  
Children’s Fund. https://www.unicef.org/chad  
3. International Crisis Group. (2023). Sudan’s Darfur Conflict and Regional Implications. Brussels: ICG.  
https://www.crisisgroup.org  
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