INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025  
A Comparative Study of Hygiene Practices among Residents of Rural  
and Urban Areas in Lagos-State, Nigeria  
Adeniji L.A1, Ashiru A.W2, Dahunsi M.A3, Idowu E.O4, Olusan B.O5, Idris M.A6, Akintola O.E7  
1,4,5,7Department of Statistics, Yaba College of Technology, Yaba Lagos, Nigeria  
2Department of Biological Science, Yaba College of Technology, Yaba Lagos, Nigeria  
5Department of Mathematics, Yaba College of Technology, Yaba Lagos, Nigeria  
3Department of Statistics, University of Lagos, Yaba Lagos, Nigeria  
#Corresponding Author  
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51584/IJRIAS.2025.10100000164  
Received: 27 October 2025; Accepted: 03 November 2025; Published: 20 November 2025  
ABSTRACT  
The study focused on the practice of hygiene among the people living in rural (Agric) and urban (Yaba) areas  
in Lagos-State. Hygiene practices happened to be significant concern of public health, and appreciative its  
practice in both citied and local communities as crucial for effective interventions. The research adopted cross-  
sectional research design, and data were collected through well-structured questionnaires from 312  
participants. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics and inferential (chi-square tests) to  
assess relationships between categorical variables with the aid of statistical package SPSS27. Results showed  
that the residents of showed-case better knowledge of practices of hygiene compare to participants in Agric.  
The results also showed a significant statistical different in the personal hygienic practices at (p < 0.05) and  
environmental hygiene practices at (p < 0.05) between both areas. Knowledge of hygiene was also  
significantly associated with location (p < 0.05). More so, the results indicated no significant association in  
attitudes toward hygiene practices at (p > 0.05). In conclusion, the study identified disparities in hygiene  
knowledge and practices between rural area and urban area. The findings indicated that urban residents  
displayed better hygienic knowledge and environmental practices, attitudes toward hygiene were similar in  
both Agric and Yaba locations. Therefore, there is need for equitable access to hygiene facilities and resources  
for improving public health in both rural and urban areas.  
Keywords- Hygiene Practices, Rural and Urban Areas, Public Health, Environmental Sanitation  
INTRODUCTION  
Practice of hygiene play key fundamental role that are need in the prevention of infectious diseases and the  
advancement of public health at large. The World Health Organization recognises hygienic as one of the key  
fundamentals of the prevention of disease, mainly in low- and middle-income countries where access to safe  
water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) facilities remains uneven [1]. In Nigeria, big differences among  
residents of rural and urban areas in the aspect of the availability of clean water, sanitation facilities, and health  
education, leading to variations in hygiene behaviour and related health outcomes [2].  
Those in urban areas often benefit from improved infrastructure and better access to hygiene information,  
while rural communities may experience limitations in sanitation facilities and awareness [3]. These  
differences significantly affect the incidence of communicable diseases such as diarrhea, cholera, and typhoid.  
According to [4], comparing hygiene practices between rural and urban populations provides insight into  
behavioral and infrastructural gaps that must be addressed to achieve Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6  
(Clean Water and Sanitation) and SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being).  
This study then explores and relates hygiene practices among residents of Agric (rural area) and Yaba (urban  
area) in Lagos-state, with the objective of understanding differences in personal and environmental hygiene, as  
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)  
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well as the relationship between knowledge, attitude, and hygiene practice.  
The disparity in the rural and urban communities appears in many ways that can influence health behaviors,  
include personal hygiene among secondary school students. [5] stated that place of residence has a meaningful  
significant impact on the practices of hygiene, with urban students generally demonstrating better hygiene due  
to greater availability of necessary hygiene resources.  
In the study carried out by [5], female secondary school students in Obio/Akpor, like adolescents elsewhere,  
undergo physical changes during puberty that require proper personal care. However, some are observed to  
have poor hygiene. Instances such as visible menstrual stains on uniforms indicate inadequate menstrual  
management, while strong body and mouth odor suggest insufficient grooming. Additionally, some students  
handle food with unwashed hands, posing health risks [5]. These challenges may be more pronounced in rural  
areas where sanitation facilities and hygiene materials are limited. Even in urban schools, access to available  
facilities can be restricted, leaving students to manage their hygiene with minimal support. Therefore, it is  
important to examine their hygiene practices in both rural and urban settings to guide effective interventions.  
This underscores the need for the present comparative study on personal hygiene practices among female  
students.  
According to [5], reported that personal hygiene practices including oral, hand, clothing, body, and menstrual  
hygiene did not show a statistically significant difference between female students in rural and urban settings  
(p > 0.05). However, they noted that overall hygiene behaviors, particularly those related to clothing, body  
care, and menstrual hygiene, were more commonly practiced among students in urban areas than those in rural  
communities.  
Hygiene and Public Health  
According to [6], hygiene is simply a set of practices that encourage health through cleanliness and the  
prevention of diseases. The good hygiene practices, through handwashing, waste disposal, and clean  
environments, are critical for reducing infectious disease transmission. Poor hygiene has been linked to high  
morbidity and mortality rates in developing countries, particularly among children under five [1].  
Rural-Urban Differences in Practices of Hygiene  
Many past studies have consistently shown disparities in hygiene practices between rural and urban  
populations. In the study by [7], urban dwellers often have better access to clean water, sanitary facilities, and  
hygiene education programs. Conversely, rural communities face infrastructural challenges that hinder good  
hygiene practices, including inadequate water supply, poor waste disposal systems, and limited health literacy  
[8].  
In a comparative study in northern Nigeria, [9] found that urban residents had significantly higher hygiene  
practice scores than rural residents. Similar findings were reported in Ghana and Kenya, where urban areas  
exhibited better handwashing behavior and sanitation coverage [1] [3].  
Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice (KAP) Framework  
The framework of KAP is widely used to assess how people’s knowledge and attitudes influence their hygienic  
behavior. Many studies show that individuals with higher knowledge of hygiene and positive attitudes are  
more likely to practice proper hygiene [10]. However, in many rural settings, cultural beliefs and limited access  
to health information reduce the adoption of good hygiene practices [11].  
Policy and SDG Context  
Nigeria’s National Policy on Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) emphasizes equitable access to safe  
water and improved sanitation facilities [12]. Nonetheless, achieving SDG 6 remains challenging due to  
regional inequalities. Strengthening hygiene education and improving community participation are essential  
strategies to bridge the gap between rural and urban populations [4]. Another study conducted in Amuwo-  
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Odofin, Lagos-state, in which sustainable development goal (SDG) 3 was addressed and link it to factors like  
quality of services and cost of healthcare for it to manifest [13].  
AIM AND OBJECTIVES  
Aim  
To investigate and compare the hygiene practices of individuals residing in rural and urban areas, with the  
objective of identifying differences, understanding the factors influencing these practices, and providing  
recommendations for improving hygiene standards in both settings.  
Objectives  
1. To assess the level of hygiene practices among rural and urban populations.  
2. To determine the association between knowledge, attitude and hygiene practices in rural and urban  
populations.  
METHODOLOGY  
The research design adopted for this study was a comparative cross-sectional research design, which is  
appropriate for collection of data at a single point in time, providing a snapshot of the current water sanitation  
and hygiene (WASH) practices and related health outcomes in these areas.  
Adults aged 18 years above who have lived in the selected areas (Yaba or Agric) for at least 6 months, can give  
informed consent, and understand English or the local language were included in the study. Participants should  
be household residents knowledgeable about hygiene practices. Individual not up to 18 years, non-residents,  
visitors, institutionalized persons, those unable to consent, or anyone unwilling to participate were excluded.  
Questionnaire was used to assess participants' water sources, sanitation facilities, hygiene practices, and  
associated health outcomes. And it has 5 sections, demographic variable, personal hygiene, environmental  
hygiene, knowledge, and attitude towards hygiene practice [3].  
The target population comprised adults aged 18 years above residing in Agric and Yaba areas, in which 312  
residents of rural (Agric) and urban (Yaba) areas were sampled by random process.  
Hygiene practices were scored, giving 1 for positive and 0 for negative responses. Scores were converted to  
percentages ≥50% = good hygiene, < 50% =poor hygiene [8],[14]. Knowledge was scored 1 for correct and 0  
for incorrect responses, scores ≥50%indicated adequate knowledge, while < 50 anshowed inadequate  
knowledge [10]. More so, attitude scores ≥50%implies positive attitude and <50£means negative attitude [11].  
And the responses gotten from the field were analysed using descriptive statistics (frequencies/percentages)  
and inferential statistics [13] (Chi-square and Risk estimate (odd ratio) Methods) on SPSS27.  
RESULTS  
Table 1: Association between Overall hygienic practice, attitude, and knowledge  
X2  
P-value  
< 0.05F  
Location  
Agric  
Yaba  
Total  
Personal hygiene practice  
Poor  
39(38.8)  
62(61.4)  
86(40.8)  
101(100.0)  
211(100.0)  
11.656  
Good  
125(59.2)  
Environmental hygiene practice  
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)  
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Poor  
57(39.3)  
88(60.7)  
60(35.9)  
145(100.0)  
167(100.0)  
19.085  
17.761  
0.710  
< 0.05F  
Good  
107(64.1)  
Overall hygiene practice  
Poor  
44(37.3)  
74(62.7)  
74(38.1)  
118(100.0)  
194(100.0)  
Good  
120(61.9)  
< 0.05F  
> 0.05F  
Attitude towards hygiene  
Negative  
Positive  
46(48.9)  
48(51.1)  
94(100.0)  
118(54.1)  
100(45.9) 218(100.0)  
Knowledge towards hygiene practice  
Poor  
32(39.5)  
49(60.5)  
99(42.9)  
91(100.0)  
7.481  
< 0.05F  
Good  
132(57.1)  
231(100.0)  
Note: X2 “Chi-square value”, F “Fisher’s Exact Test”  
Interpretation:  
In table above we observed a strong correlation between different hygiene indices and geography (rural vs.  
urban), The association that was statistically significantly different between Agric (rural) and Yaba (urban)  
residents in terms of practices of personal hygiene, practices of environmental hygiene, overall practice of  
hygiene, and knowledge of hygiene, with p-values less than 0.05 for each.  
Table 2: Association between Overall hygienic practice, attitude, and knowledge  
Overall Hygiene Practice  
Poor  
X2  
P-value  
> 0.05F  
< 0.05F  
Good  
Total  
Attitude towards hygiene  
Negative  
43(36.4)  
51(26.3)  
75(63.6)  
118(100.0)  
194(100.0)  
3.592  
10.842  
Positive  
143(73.7)  
Knowledge towards hygiene practice  
Poor  
43(36.4)  
38(19.6)  
75(63.6)  
118(100.0)  
194(100.0)  
Good  
156(80.4)  
Note: X2 “Chi-square value”, F “Fisher’s Test”  
The results in the above table determines the association between overall hygiene practice and both attitude  
and knowledge. The association between knowledge and overall hygiene practice was significant (p < 0.05),  
showing that individuals with better hygiene knowledge tend to exhibit better hygiene practices. In contrast,  
the relationship between attitude and overall hygiene practice was not statistically significant (p > 0.05),  
implying that while attitude may influence hygiene behavior, it does not necessarily translate into enhanced  
practices without adequate knowledge and supportive infrastructure. Generally, the findings emphasize that  
knowledge is a stronger determinant of good hygiene behavior than attitude alone, highlighting the importance  
of hygiene education and community sensitization.  
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Table 3: Results of Logistic Regression analysis  
Variable: Overall hygienic practice  
Odd ratio  
95% CI  
Pvalue  
Knowledge  
Poor  
1.000  
Good  
2.099  
1.316  
3.348  
4.374  
2.139  
0.002  
Variable: Overall hygienic practice  
Odd ratio  
95% CI  
Pvalue  
Location  
Rural  
1.000  
Urban  
2.727  
1.701  
0.000  
Variable: Knowledge  
Location  
Rural  
Odd ratio  
95% CI  
Pvalue  
1.000  
1.361  
Urban  
0.866  
0.182  
Note: OR-odd ratio, CI-95% confidence interval  
In table 3, the logistic regression results revealed that knowledge and location (rural and urban) are main  
determinants of good hygiene practices. Individual with better hygiene knowledge are more likely to maintain  
hygienic behavior (OR=2.099, CI:1.316-3.348, P<0.05), and urban (Yaba) residents exhibit statistical  
significantly better hygiene levels compare to their counterparts (OR=2.727, CI=1.701-4.374, P<0.05).  
However, since the difference in knowledge between rural and urban residents is not significant (OR=1.361,  
CI=0.866-2.139, P>0.05), the better hygiene practices in urban and rural areas may largely stem from  
infrastructural and environmental merits rather than only knowledge disparities.  
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS  
The study findings showed clear inequalities in hygiene practices between residents of rural and urban areas in  
Lagos-State, Nigeria. The results indicated significant associations between location and several hygiene  
related indicators like personal hygiene, environmental hygiene, collective hygiene practices, and knowledge  
of hygiene, with p-values < 0.05. This indicates that the level of hygiene practice is significantly influenced by  
the area of residence. However, attitude towards hygiene was not significantly different between the two  
groups (p > 0.05).  
These findings clearly support the findings of [5],[7], who observed that urban populations often demonstrate  
better hygiene practices than rural counterparts due to improved access to water, sanitation facilities, and health  
information. In the present study, residents of Yaba (urban area) showed higher levels of good hygiene practice  
compared to those in Agric (rural area), corroborating [9], who found that urban residents generally exhibit  
better sanitation and handwashing behavior due to exposure to public health campaigns and better  
infrastructure.  
More so, the present study showed significant difference in environmental hygiene practices which aligned  
with the study of [7], who found that rural areas in Southwest Nigeria often suffer from poor waste  
management and inadequate sanitation systems. Similarly, [2] emphasized that environmental and  
infrastructural challenges in rural areas heighten vulnerability to hygiene-related diseases such as cholera and  
typhoid fever.  
In the present study, there is no significant association between attitude towards hygiene and location, which  
suggests that both rural and urban populations possess relatively similar attitudinal orientations toward  
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cleanliness and hygiene, even though practical application differs. This agree with the study conducted by [11],  
who reported that positive attitudes alone may not always translate into good hygiene behavior unless  
supported by knowledge, resources, and conducive environmental conditions.  
The significant association between knowledge and hygiene practices found in this study (p < 0.05)  
underscores the importance of awareness and education in promoting healthy behaviors. This finding is line  
with the study by [10], who found that individuals with higher hygiene knowledge tend to practice better  
sanitation and hygiene routines. It also agrees with the Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice theoretical  
framework, which posits that knowledge significantly shapes behavioral outcomes [6].  
In addition, the present findings indicated that the observed non-significant association between attitude and  
hygiene practices indicates that while attitude may influence intentions, it may not be a strong predictor of  
hygiene behavior in isolation. Similar findings were noted by [11], who reported that positive attitudes without  
sufficient facilities or knowledge may not lead to behavioral change.  
Generally, the results reinforce that knowledge is the most influential determinant of good hygiene practice.  
This underscores the need for community-based health education programs that target not only awareness but  
also targeted practical behavior modification strategies. The findings continue emphasize the role of  
infrastructural development and government policy in bridging the urban-rural divide in hygiene standards.  
This study supports the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Clean Water and Sanitation and  
good Health and Well-being, by highlighting the need for equitable access to hygiene facilities and health  
information. The results suggest that interventions to improve hygiene should prioritize education, access to  
clean water, and community engagement to reduce the burden of preventable diseases in Nigeria’s rural and  
urban communities [1],[4].  
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS  
This study demonstrated and compared the practices of hygiene among the residents of rural (Agric) and urban  
(Yaba) residents in Lagos-State, Nigeria. The results showed that location significantly influences hygiene  
behavior, as urban residents demonstrated higher levels of good personal, environmental, and overall hygiene  
practices compared to their rural counterparts. The study further revealed that knowledge of hygiene plays a  
more critical role in determining good hygiene practices than attitude alone.  
The findings Signified that, despite both groups exhibiting relatively positive attitudes toward hygiene, actual  
practices are hindered in rural areas due to infrastructural deficiencies, inadequate water supply, and limited  
access to sanitation facilities. This underscores the persistent urban-rural inequality in hygiene-related health  
outcomes in Nigeria.  
The study supports the Sustainable Development Goals (Good Health and Well-being and Clean Water and  
Sanitation), highlighting the need to ensure even access to hygiene resources and education. By enhancing  
knowledge, ensuring infrastructural provision, and strengthening behavioral change communication,  
community health can be enhanced, and preventable hygiene-related diseases can be significantly reduced.  
We therefore recommended that government and non-governmental bodies should strengthen hygiene  
education campaigns, particularly in rural areas, focusing more on handwashing, waste management, and  
sanitation. The government must improve water and sanitation infrastructure to support better hygiene.  
Community participation should be encouraged through schools, leaders, and religious institutions, while  
hygiene education should be incorporated into school curricula to instill lifelong hygienic habits.  
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