INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)

ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025

Page 2248

www.rsisinternational.org

Unmasking Colonial Legacies in Zambian Education: A

Philosophical and Historical Critique of the Secondary School

Curriculum

Farrelli Hambulo

, Gladys Matandiko

, Adam Daka

University of Zambia, School of Education

2,3

University of Zambia, Institute of Distance Education (IDE)

Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.51584/IJRIAS.2025.10100000192

Received: 11 November 2025; Accepted: 19 November 2025; Published: 22 November 2025

ABSTRACT

This article offers a critical examination of the colonial legacies embedded within Zambia’s national secondary

education curriculum through historical and philosophical inquiry. Drawing on postcolonial theory and

decolonial epistemologies, it interrogates the curriculum’s origins, content, and pedagogical orientations that

continue to reflect Eurocentric paradigms at the expense of indigenous knowledge systems. Historically,

Zambian formal education was structured by missionary and colonial administrators whose curriculum

objectives prioritized Western intellectual traditions, marginalizing local contexts and cultural relevance.

Philosophically, the article engages thinkers such as Paulo Freire, Frantz Fanon, and Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o to

challenge the epistemic violence of curricular structures that perpetuate dependency and cultural subjugation.

Through critical analysis of policy documents and curriculum frameworks, the study reveals how education in

Zambia remains tethered to colonial foundations that shape national identity, social stratification, and

pedagogical practice. The paper advocates for a reimagined secondary curriculum that centers African

philosophies, democratic participation, and cultural pluralism. By unmasking these colonial residues, this study

contributes to the broader discourse on educational decolonization and offers strategic insights for curriculum

transformation in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Keywords: Decolonization; Curriculum Reform; Postcolonial theory; Indigenous Knowledge Systems;

Zambian Education

INTRODUCTION

Education shapes not only individual trajectories but also collective identities and social futures. In Zambia, the

secondary education curriculum remains deeply imprinted with colonial frameworks that privilege Western

epistemologies at the expense of indigenous worldviews. This misalignment undermines the curriculum’s

relevance and reinforces patterns of cultural marginalization in a society striving for postcolonial renewal.

Historically, Zambia’s formal schooling system was established under missionary and British colonial

administration, with curricular models designed to serve imperial interests rather than local needs. As Ngũgĩ

wa Thiong’o (1986:16) observed, “colonial education annihilated a people’s belief in their names, in their

languages, in their environment, in their heritage of struggle, in their unity, in their capacities, and ultimately in

themselves”. Such an education system produced subjects conditioned to accept external authority rather than

critical, self-determined citizens.

Philosophically, the curriculum enacts what Frantz Fanon (1963) termed epistemic violence, whereby learners

internalize a sense of inferiority through institutionalized knowledge hierarchies. Without deliberate efforts to

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)

ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025

Page 2249

www.rsisinternational.org

foreground African philosophies and indigenous knowledge systems, Zambia’s secondary curriculum

perpetuates symbolic domination and cultural alienation. This article seeks to unmask these colonial residues

and advocate for a transformative reimagining grounded in local epistemologies and democratic participation.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Historical Foundations of the Zambian Secondary Education Curriculum

Formal secondary schooling in Zambia was introduced by missionary societies in the late 19th and early 20th

centuries. These early curricula prioritized Christian doctrine, English literacy, and vocational skills deemed

useful for colonial administration, sidelining indigenous knowledge systems and languages (Carnoy, 1974).

Missionary textbooks and examinations were imported directly from Britain, reinforcing Eurocentric

worldviews and creating a bifurcated education that separated “civilized” knowledge from local cultural

practices (Chanda, 2010).

Following independence in 1964, Zambian policymakers sought to Africanize the curriculum through the 1968

Educational Reform Commission. Although the commission recommended incorporating local history and

vernacular languages, implementation was hampered by limited resources, teacher training gaps, and lingering

colonial structures within educational institutions (Banda, 2004). Subsequent curriculum reviews in the 1970s

and 1980s continued to perpetuate Western epistemologies, even as official rhetoric embraced national identity

and development goals (Mwansa, 2008).

Philosophical Foundations for Decolonizing Education

Postcolonial and critical pedagogy offer vital philosophical lenses for critiquing Zambia’s secondary

curriculum. Paulo Freire’s concept of “conscientization” foregrounds education as a practice of freedom rather

than domination, arguing that learners must critically engage with content to transform oppressive structures

(Freire, 1970). Frantz Fanon extends this critique by describing how colonial education instills internalized

inferiority, perpetuating psychological and cultural dependence on the colonizer (Fanon, 1963).

Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o (1986) further emphasizes language as a site of epistemic struggle, asserting that

reclaiming indigenous languages and narratives is crucial for decolonial reawakening. His work challenges

educators to question the very foundations of curricular content and to re-center knowledge production within

local contexts.

Decolonial Curriculum Theory and Frameworks

Contemporary decolonial curriculum theorists propose frameworks that move beyond critique to practical

transformation. Linda Tuhiwai Smith (2012) calls for research and pedagogy that respect indigenous

epistemologies, privileging relationality, community engagement, and culturally grounded methodologies.

Marie Battiste (2002) argues for the integration of Indigenous knowledge systems into mainstream education,

advocating for curricular pluralism that validates multiple ways of knowing. Gloria Ladson-Billings (1995)

introduces culturally relevant pedagogy, emphasizing academic success, cultural competence, and

sociopolitical consciousness as core aims of transformative education.

These models share an emphasis on disrupting monocultural knowledge hierarchies, designing curricula in

genuine partnership with local communities, and fostering critical agency among students.

Empirical Research on Curriculum Decolonization in Zambia

Empirical studies examining curriculum reform in Zambia remain limited but instructive. Mwansa (2008)

found that secondary teachers often lack the training or resources to incorporate local histories and languages,

resulting in tokenistic inclusion of indigenous content. Samkange’s (2013) survey of urban and rural schools

revealed that students perceive the national curriculum as disconnected from their lived experiences,

diminishing motivation and deep learning. More recent pilot projects in Eastern Province demonstrate that

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)

ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025

Page 2250

www.rsisinternational.org

community-developed modules on local ecology and oral traditions can enhance engagement and critical

thinking (Phiri & Zulu, 2019).

Gaps in the Literature and Research Agenda

Despite these insights, significant gaps persist. There is a dearth of longitudinal studies assessing the impact of

decolonial interventions on student outcomes and identity formation. Few analyses interrogate power dynamics

within curriculum policymaking or examine how teacher education programs can systematically prepare

educators for decolonial praxis. Moreover, existing literature often treats “indigenous knowledge” as a

monolith, overlooking the diversity of ethnic groups and epistemic traditions across Zambia. Addressing these

gaps will be essential for designing a truly transformative secondary curriculum.

METHODOLOGY

This study employs a qualitative, critical‐document analysis to unmask colonial residues in Zambia’s

secondary curriculum. By combining hermeneutic interpretation with Foucauldian discourse analysis, it

interrogates how curricular texts reproduce or resist imperial epistemologies.

Research Design

 Qualitative critical‐document analysis: allows in‐depth examination of policy and curricular texts as

historical artefacts and sites of knowledge production (Bowen, 2009).

 Hermeneutic approach: situates each document within its sociopolitical context, uncovering implicit

meanings and power dynamics (Gadamer, 1975).

 Foucauldian discourse analysis: traces how language in the curriculum constructs “truths” that

legitimize Western knowledge hierarchies (Foucault, 1972).

Data Sources

a) National curriculum frameworks and syllabi (1968, 1982, 1993, 2013) obtained from the Ministry of

Education.

b) Colonial‐era missionary school manuals and examination papers housed at the Zambia National

Archives.

c) Educational commission reports. For instance, the ‘1968 Educational Reform Commission’ and

government white papers.

d) Supplementary policy documents. For instance, the ‘2006 National Philosophy of Education’, to trace

shifts in official discourse.

Analytical Procedures

a) Document mapping: cataloguing each source by date, issuing body, and intended audience.

b) Thematic coding: developing a codebook with both deductive codes (for example, “Eurocentric

content,” “language policy”) and inductive codes emerging from the texts.

c) Discourse analysis steps:

 Identify key discursive formations (for instance, “civilizing mission,” “national identity”).

 Analyze how these formations configure knowledge and legitimize certain pedagogies.

 Examine silences—topics and perspectives excluded from the curriculum.

d) Triangulation: cross‐referencing findings across documents and theoretical lenses to enhance

credibility.

Ethical Considerations & Limitations

 Ethical clearance was obtained from the University of Zambia Ethics Committee; although archival

research poses minimal personal risk, respect for cultural sensitivities guided interpretation.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)

ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025

Page 2251

www.rsisinternational.org

 Limitations include potential archival gaps - some missionary records are incomplete - and the absence

of direct classroom observation, which constrains insights into enactment.

PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS

This section of the paper lays out the empirical patterns and textual evidence uncovered in the curricular

archives and missionary documents, organized by theme and historical period.

Overview of Curricular Shifts (1968–2013)

1968 Framework

o Emphasis on British imperial history and literature.

o Geography syllabus foregrounds UK and Commonwealth maps.

1982 Revision

o Introduction of “African Studies” module, yet still taught through Western paradigms (for example,

comparative case studies with Europe).

o Science curricula retain Eurocentric landmarks (Newton, Darwin) without local contextualization.

1993 Update

o National Philosophy of Education (1986) officially adopted, but primary-level manuals continue using

missionary‐authored examples.

o History syllabus adds Zambia’s independence but frames it as a footnote to British colonial narratives.

2013 Curriculum

o Stronger rhetoric of “Zambian identity,” yet subject guides still reproduce Western pedagogical models

(for instance, project‐based learning templates borrowed from UK inspectorates).

Persistence of Eurocentric Content

 History textbooks consistently designate European explorers (Livingstone, Stanley) as primary agents

of “discovery,” while indigenous figures appear in sidebar anecdotes.

 Literature anthologies prioritize British Romantic poets; Zambian oral poetry is referenced only as

cultural “supplement.”

 Missionary manuals (pre-1968) provide templates for essay questions that persisted verbatim into post-

independence examinations.

Marginalization of Indigenous Knowledge Systems

 Science syllabi omit indigenous agricultural practices (for example agricultural practices like: zai pits,

intercropping and others) despite their prominence in local farming manuals.

 Healing and herbal medicine appear as “traditional folklore” in Social Studies, disconnected from

formal health sciences.

 Missionary archival papers classify local cosmologies under “superstition,” a categorization carried

forward into early postcolonial curricula.

Language Policy and Cultural Hegemony

 English remained the sole medium for curricular texts; vernacular languages relegated to “optional”

status in only a handful of subject guides.

 Grammar exercises in English textbooks use European contexts (British boarding schools, Oxford

settings), alienating rural Zambian learners.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)

ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025

Page 2252

www.rsisinternational.org

 Policy white papers (2006) call for mother-tongue support, but no corresponding textbook revisions

were issued by 2013.

Construction of National Identity

 Flagship civics units frame “nation-building” around Western democratic ideals (parliamentary debates

in Westminster mode), sidelining indigenous governance systems (chiefdom councils).

 Geography projects ask learners to compare Lusaka’s layout with London’s Boroughs, reinforcing

metropolitan benchmarks.

 Missionary examination rubrics introduced meritocratic ranking systems, which remain the basis for

national secondary school assessments.

These findings reveal deep-seated continuities in how Western epistemologies structure knowledge in

Zambia’s secondary curriculum.

ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS

This section of the paper interprets how the patterns identified in the previous section (4. Presentation of

Findings) reproduce colonial power dynamics and shape learner subjectivities. Drawing on the Foucauldian

discourse theory and decolonial scholarship, the section examines the mechanisms through which the Zambian

secondary curriculum both sustains and (rarely) resists imperial epistemologies.

Discursive Construction of Knowledge and Power

Curricular texts function as sites where certain knowledges are authorized and others delegitimized. According

to Foucauldian discourse analysis, these texts constitute “regimes of truth” that normalize Western perspectives

and marginalize alternative worldviews (Foucault, 1972).

 Eurocentric narratives position European explorers and philosophers as primary producers of

knowledge, reinforcing hierarchical binaries of “civilized” versus “primitive.”

 Missionary‐derived question templates and exam rubrics perpetuate discursive formations that valorize

British pedagogical norms.

 Silences around local epistemologies indicate a strategic exclusion: what is unspoken often exerts

greater power than what is articulated.

Silencing of Indigenous Epistemologies

The curriculum’s treatment of indigenous knowledge as “supplementary” or “folklore” enacts what decolonial

thinkers call the coloniality of knowledge (Mignolo, 2011). By relegating local agricultural and healing

practices to the margins, the curriculum does the following:

 Denies learners access to culturally relevant science and technology models such as: zai pits, herbal

medicine and others too numerous to mention here.

 Reinforces a singular, universal subjectivity wherein Western scientific methods constitute the only

valid approach to understanding nature.

 Undercuts possibilities for epistemic plurality and critical engagement with local knowledges.

Linguistic Hegemony and Learner Subjectivation

Language policy in curricular materials exemplifies Bourdieu’s concept of linguistic capital: mastery of

English becomes a gatekeeper for academic success (Bourdieu, 1991). This dynamic constructs rural and

vernacular‐language speakers as deficient subjects.

 Grammar exercises set in British contexts estrange learners from their everyday experiences.

 Lack of genuine integration of mother‐tongue resources sustains a monolingual bias, privileging urban,

English‐medium schools.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)

ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025

Page 2253

www.rsisinternational.org

 The curriculum naturalizes English as neutral, obscuring its role in maintaining colonial hierarchies.

National Identity and Normative Models

“Nation-building” units draw heavily on Western democratic templates, framing Zambian citizenship through a

Eurocentric lens. This produces what Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o (1986) terms an “alienated self,” disconnected from

indigenous governance traditions.

 Civics projects benchmark local councils against Westminster norms, implying that legitimate

governance must mirror former colonial powers.

 Geography comparisons to London-based metrics instill a sense of inferiority regarding Zambian urban

forms.

 Meritocratic ranking systems, inherited from missionary exams, valorize competition over communal

values.

Implications for Decolonizing the Curriculum

The analysis reveals that moments of curricular “Africanization” often serve as rhetorical devices rather than

genuine shifts in epistemic authority. To move toward a decolonized curriculum, stakeholders must:

 Reconfigure syllabi to center indigenous knowledge systems as co‐equal, not ancillary, sources of

understanding.

 Co‐develop learning materials with community elders and local experts to ensure cultural resonance

and epistemic justice.

 Reform language policies to incorporate bilingual or multilingual pedagogies that valorize Zambian

languages alongside English.

 Critically revise assessment frameworks to reward collaborative, context‐grounded inquiry rather than

rote mastery of foreign templates.

These interventions require both policy commitment and sustained teacher‐development initiatives aimed at

unsettling entrenched colonial legacies in the classroom.

Recommendations and Action Plan for Decolonizing Zambia’s Secondary Curriculum

In this section, the paper outlines strategic interventions to transform entrenched colonial legacies into an

inclusive, pluralistic curriculum. Grounded in decolonial theory and participatory pedagogies, the

recommendations are organized across policy, curriculum design, teacher development, community

partnerships, assessment, and evaluation. At this juncture, it is important to note that each subsection provides

concrete steps, responsible actors, and suggested timelines.

a) Policy-Level Reforms

A comprehensive policy overhaul is critical to signal political will and provide scaffolding for downstream

initiatives. Reform must embed epistemic justice at the heart of curricular mandates.

1. Ministry of Education (MoE) to revise the National Philosophy of Education, explicitly naming

indigenous knowledge systems as co-equal pillars alongside Western paradigms.

2. Legislate mandatory inclusion of at least three local language resources per subject guide, with a two-

year compliance window.

3. Allocate ring-fenced budget lines for curriculum decolonization, including stipends for community

experts and funds for multilingual publishing.

4. Mandate a biennial National Curriculum Audit Board - comprising policymakers, academics, teachers,

and traditional leaders from all the ten (10) provinces of Zambia to review and sanction curricular

materials.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)

ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025

Page 2254

www.rsisinternational.org

Timeline: Policy drafting (6 months), stakeholder consultations (3 months), parliamentary approval and

gazetting (6 months), implementation start (Year 2 Q1).

b) Curriculum Co-Design and Content Development

Collaborative content creation ensures cultural resonance and epistemic plurality. Co-design affirms local

ownership and bridges theory with lived experience.

1. Establish Regional Curriculum Hubs in each province, co-chaired by the University of Zambia scholars

and scholars from other key national universities and representatives from the office of the District

Education Board Secretary (DEBS).

2. Convene workshops with elders, indigenous knowledge holders, and subject-matter experts to identify

core local concepts (e.g., Zambian cosmologies in Social Studies, agroecological practices in science).

3. Draft bilingual modules where English is integrated with vernacular texts - using reconciled editorial

teams of teachers and community scribes.

4. Pilot new modules in 10 schools (urban, peri-urban, rural) for a full academic year, collecting learner

feedback and teacher reflections for iterative refinement.

Timeline: Hub formation (3 months), content workshops (6 months), drafting (4 months), pilot phase (12

months), revision (4 months).

c) Teacher Professional Development

Unlearning colonial pedagogies requires sustained, scaffolded capacity building. Focused training empowers

educators to facilitate pluralistic classrooms.

1. Design a blended learning course on “Decolonial Pedagogy and Local Epistemologies” for in-service

teachers, co-facilitated by the University of Zambia, School of Education.

2. Implement school-based communities of practice, meeting monthly for lesson co-planning, reflective

peer observation, and knowledge-sharing across language contexts.

3. Offer micro-credentials (badges) in bilingual curriculum delivery and community-engaged teaching,

linked to career advancement incentives.

Timeline: Course development (4 months), rollout (Year 1 Q3), continuous CoP meetings (ongoing), badge

assessments (biannual).

d) Community Engagement and Knowledge Partnerships

Deep partnerships with local communities legitimize indigenous perspectives and foster mutual accountability.

1. Formalize Memoranda of Understanding between MoE and traditional leadership structures, outlining

roles in content validation and cultural safeguarding.

2. Launch a “Knowledge Ambassadors” program, recruiting senior secondary pupils to document oral

histories, agricultural wisdom, and healing practices for inclusion in curricula.

3. Host annual “Curriculum Decolonization Forums” where community members, researchers, and

policymakers review progress and co-create next steps.

Timeline: MoU negotiations (3 months), Ambassador program kickoff (Year 1 Q2), first Forum (Year 1 Q4).

e) Assessment Reform

Redesigning assessments disrupts inherited meritocratic hierarchies and values communal, context-rich

inquiry.

1. Shift from predominantly essay-based exams to mixed-modal assessments: portfolios, community-

based projects, oral presentations in mother tongue.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)

ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025

Page 2255

www.rsisinternational.org

2. Revise national examination rubrics to include criteria for cultural relevance, collaborative learning, and

critical engagement with local knowledge.

3. Train examiners and inspectors on intercultural assessment literacy to ensure fair, context-sensitive

grading.

Timeline: Rubric drafting (6 months), examiner workshops (3 months), pilot assessments (Year 2 exam cycle),

full roll-out (Year 3).

f) Monitoring, Evaluation, and Iterative Improvement

A robust M&E framework guarantees accountability and supports continuous learning.

Component

Indicator

Data Source

Frequency

Policy implementation

Number of subject guides revised with

indigenous content

MoGE annual report

Annually

Teacher capacity

Percentage of teachers with decolonial

pedagogy badges

University of Zambia

certification records

Biannually

Curriculum relevance

Student and community satisfaction ratings

Surveys, focus groups

Each term

Assessment diversity

Proportion of alternative assessment items in

exams

Examination Council

statistics

Annually

Community engagement

Number of active Knowledge Ambassadors

Program databases

Quarterly

 Commission independent evaluators at Year 2 and Year 4 to assess impact on learner outcomes and

cultural equity.

 Use findings to refine policy directives, resource allocations, and professional development offerings.

The recommendations highlighted above together chart a roadmap toward an emancipatory, contextually

grounded curriculum in Zambia.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH

Education is a powerful site of both domination and liberation. This study has traced how Zambia’s national

secondary curriculum, from its missionary origins to contemporary revisions, remains imbued with colonial

epistemologies that privilege Western knowledge systems and marginalize indigenous worldviews. By

unmasking the discursive formations, silences, and linguistic hegemonies embedded in curricular texts, the

analysis reveals the persistence of symbolic violence and cultural alienation within policy, content, and

assessment frameworks.

The proposed recommendations in the paper chart a multifaceted pathway toward curriculum emancipation:

policy reforms that enshrine epistemic justice, collaborative content co-design with local communities,

decolonial teacher development, multilingual pedagogies, and diversified assessment practices. Central to this

transformation is the principled re-centering of indigenous knowledge as co-equal with Western paradigms,

thereby restoring education’s potential as a tool for critical consciousness and democratic participation.

While this paper has focused on textual archives and policy documents, future research must deepen our

understanding of how decolonial curricula are enacted and experienced in classrooms. Key avenues include:

 Longitudinal case studies assessing the impact of redesigned modules on students’ cultural identity,

critical thinking, and academic achievement.

 Ethnographic investigations of teacher and learner engagements with bilingual and community-

developed materials to surface enactment challenges and successes.

 Policy analyses exploring power dynamics in curriculum decision-making bodies, with attention to how

traditional leadership and youth representatives can be more inclusively integrated.

 Comparative studies across Sub-Saharan contexts to identify best practices and common barriers in

decolonizing secondary education.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)

ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025

Page 2256

www.rsisinternational.org

By pursuing the research trajectories indicated above, scholars and practitioners can build on this foundational

critique to advance a genuinely pluralistic and liberatory secondary curriculum in Zambia and beyond.

REFERENCES

1. Banks, J. A. (2006). Cultural Diversity and Education: Foundations, Curriculum, and Teaching (5th

ed.). Allyn & Bacon.

2. Bhabha, H. K. (1994). The Location of Culture. Routledge.

3. Chabal, P. (1995). Power in Africa: An Essay in Political Interpretation. St. Martin’s Press.

4. Cowen, R. (2000). Good Practice in Curriculum Reform. UNESCO.

5. Dei, G. J. S. (1993). African Development: Radical Interpretations. African Development Press.

6. De Sousa Santos, B. (2007). Epistemologies of the South: Justice Against Epistemicide. Routledge.

7. Fanon, F. (1967). The Wretched of the Earth (C. Farrington, Trans.). Grove Press. (Original work

published 1961)

8. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Continuum.

9. Freire, P. (1996). Pedagogy of the Oppressed (20th anniversary ed.). Continuum.

10. Fullan, M. (2007). The New Meaning of Educational Change (4th ed.). Teachers College Press.

11. Killion, J., & Todnem, G. (1991). A process for Personal Theory Building. Educational Leadership,

48(6), 14–16.

12. Kumashiro, K. K. (2002). Troubling Education: Queer Activism and Anti Oppressive Pedagogy.

Routledge Falmer.

13. Mbembe, A. (2001). On the Postcolony. University of California Press.

14. Mignolo, W. D. (2000). Local Histories/Global Designs: Coloniality, Subaltern Knowledges, and

Border Thinking. Princeton University Press.

15. Ministry of Education, Zambia. (2007). Education Curriculum Reform Framework. Lusaka:

Government Printer.

16. Ministry of Education, Zambia. (2013). Zambian Education Development Plan 2013–2020. Lusaka:

National Educational Advisory Board.

17. Ministry of Education, Zambia. (2020). National Curriculum Framework for Secondary Education.

Lusaka: Government Printer.

18. Ministry of Education, Zambia. (2015). Guidelines for the development of bilingual materials in

schools. Lusaka: Government Printer.

19. Morrow, W. (2007). Learning to Teach in South Africa. HSRC Press.

20. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S. J. (2013). Coloniality of power in postcolonial Africa: Myths of decolonization.

African Books Collective.

21. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o. (1986). Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature.

Heinemann.

22. Rogers, A. (2005). Theory of Change in Educational Reform. Journal of Educational Change, 6(2),

99–114.

23. Smith, L. T. (2012). Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples (2nd ed.). Zed

Books.

24. Spivak, G. C. (1988). Can the Subaltern Speak? In C. Nelson & L. Grossberg (Eds.), Marxism and the

Interpretation of Culture (pp. 271–313). University of Illinois Press.

25. Tejeda, C., & Porfilio, B. J. (2006). Toward a Transgressive Curriculum: Critical Race Theory and the

Crossroads of Decolonization. Journal of Critical Education Policy Studies, 4(1), 128–150.

26. UNESCO. (2015). Rethinking Education: Towards a Global Common Good? UNESCO Publishing.

27. Varghese, N. V. (2010). International Organizations and Educational Policy: A Sociological Analysis.

International Journal of Educational Development, 30(3), 231–238.