Declining Kite (Milvus migrans govinda) Populations in Urban and Semi-Urban Landscapes of North East India — Tripura: Impacts of Food Scarcity and Habitat Change.

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Declining Kite (Milvus migrans govinda) Populations in Urban and
Semi-Urban Landscapes of North East India — Tripura: Impacts of

Food Scarcity and Habitat Change.
*Dr. Prithwi Jyoti Bhowmik1 & Dr. Suvadip Paul2

1Asst. Professor, Dept. of Environmental Science, M.B.B. College, Agartala, India

2Associate Professor, Ramthakur College, Agartala, India

*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://doi.org/10.51584/IJRIAS.2025.101000003

Received: 13 Oct 2025; Accepted: 20 Oct 2025; Published: 27 October 2025

ABSTRACT

Urban and semi-urban populations of the Black Kite (Milvus migrans govinda— locally often M. m. govinda)
provide an essential scavenging ecosystem service in South Asia, yet regional reports indicate local declines in
some cities. This review synthesizes published studies and regional surveys relevant to Tripura and nearby
areas in north-east India to evaluate drivers behind observed declines. Primary drivers include changes in food
availability (closure / management of open garbage / offal dumps), habitat change (loss of nesting trees and
green patches), and anthropogenic mortality factors (poisoning, electrocution, collision). The literature
indicates that while some large Indian cities (e.g., Delhi) host very dense and stable kite populations supported
by plentiful anthropogenic food sources, other urban and semi-urban sites show decreased sightings and lower
breeding success where waste disposal patterns and habitat quality have changed. The review identifies data
gaps for Tripura (longitudinal population estimates, breeding success, toxicology) and outlines priority actions:
systematic monitoring, urban waste-management planning that considers scavengers, protection of nesting
trees, and community outreach to reduce poisoning and deliberate persecution.

Keywords-Black Kite, Milvus migrans, Tripura, urban ecology, food scarcity, habitat change, scavengers,
poisoning, waste management.

INTRODUCTION

Raptors play a vital ecological role as apex predators and scavengers, regulating prey populations and
accelerating the decomposition of organic waste (Newton, 1979; Thiollay, 2006). Among these, the Black Kite
(Milvus migrans), particularly the subspecies M. m. govinda, is one of the most successful avian species in
adapting to human-dominated landscapes across South Asia (Kumar et al., 2014; Mazumdar, Ghose, & Saha,
2017). Its distribution extends from the Indo-Gangetic plains to the foothills of the Himalayas and through the
northeastern states of India (Ali & Ripley, 1987; Grimmett, Inskipp, & Inskipp, 2011). Owing to its dietary
flexibility and scavenging ability, this species thrives in urban and semi-urban ecosystems where
anthropogenic food sources, such as abattoirs, fish markets, and open garbage dumps, provide abundant
feeding opportunities (Mazumdar et al., 2017; Gangoso et al., 2013; Sergio et al., 2019).

However, in recent decades, a decline in kite abundance has been reported from several regions of India and
neighboring countries (Khand, Adhikaree, Kharel, & Gautam, 2021; Bhattacharjee, Lodh, Laskar, Majumder,
& Agarwala, 2013). Although some large metropolitan areas, such as Delhi, still maintain high densities (mean
~15 nests/km²; Kumar et al., 2014), smaller cities and semi-urban regions show evidence of local population
contraction, often linked to changes in waste management, poisoning, and urban tree loss (Mazumdar et al.,
2017; Kumar et al., 2014; Gangoso et al., 2013). The decline of scavenging birds like kites may have serious
ecological consequences, including slower decomposition of organic refuse, increase in pest species, and

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reduction in urban ecosystem resilience (Pain et al., 2008; Ogada, Keesing, & Virani, 2012).

Urbanization and infrastructure expansion have profoundly transformed habitat availability for avifauna across
India. The North-East region, part of the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot, is experiencing accelerating urban
growth, with consequent habitat fragmentation and reduced green spaces (Tripura Forest Department, 2022).
Tripura, characterized by dense human settlements and forest mosaics, provides suitable conditions for Milvus
migrans, but recent informal observations suggest a decline in sightings, especially around Agartala
(Choudhury, 2010; Bhattacharjee et al., 2013). Food scarcity due to improved waste collection and restricted
access to slaughterhouse refuse may have reduced foraging opportunities, while the loss of mature nesting
trees through urban development projects has altered breeding habitats (Mazumdar et al., 2017; Khand et al.,
2021).

Although the Black Kite is categorized as “Least Concern” globally (BirdLife International, 2023), local
population declines can have disproportionate ecological and socio-cultural impacts. In India, kites hold
religious significance, and in cities such as Delhi and Varanasi, feeding kites is part of ritual practice (Kumar
et al., 2014). Therefore, understanding the interplay between cultural practices, waste management, and habitat
structure is crucial to urban raptor conservation (Mazumdar et al., 2017; Sergio et al., 2019).

In Tripura, there is a paucity of long-term ornithological data. The most notable records are limited to state-
level avifaunal surveys (Choudhury, 2010) and the Agartala city checklist (Bhattacharjee et al., 2013), which
confirm the species’ presence but not population trajectories. Considering the region’s rapid urban
transformation, systematic reviews and field monitoring are necessary to evaluate whether the Black Kite
population is indeed declining and to identify the drivers responsible. This paper reviews available literature on
the ecological responses of Milvus migrans to food scarcity and habitat changes, emphasizing their
implications for urban and semi-urban landscapes of Tripura and adjoining northeastern India.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Raptors are often considered bioindicators of ecosystem health because their population trends mirror broader
environmental changes (Sergio, Newton, & Marchesi, 2005; McClure et al., 2018). Among them, the Black
Kite (Milvus migrans) stands out for its synanthropic behavior—its capacity to live in close association with
humans (Kumar et al., 2014; Gangoso et al., 2013). Studies from several urban centers in India, including
Delhi, Kolkata, and Guwahati, reveal that kites often rely on human-generated food resources such as meat
waste, garbage dumps, and slaughterhouse offal (Mazumdar, Ghose, & Saha, 2017; Jha & Mazumdar, 2020).
However, this dependence has created ecological traps where sudden improvements in waste management or
urban sanitation lead to abrupt food shortages, directly affecting kite survival and breeding success (Khand et
al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2014).

Urban Food Scarcity and Dietary Adaptation

The availability of anthropogenic food has long been recognized as a critical determinant of urban raptor
abundance (Sodhi, 1991; Oro et al., 2013). In Delhi, Black Kites exhibit high breeding densities (up to 15
nests/km²), strongly correlated with proximity to food-rich areas such as butcher shops and open dumps
(Kumar et al., 2014). A similar pattern has been documented in Kolkata, where offal dumping sites
significantly influence roosting and foraging site selection (Mazumdar et al., 2017). However, recent shifts
toward cleaner urban environments and improved waste segregation programs have diminished these foraging
hotspots (Tripura Forest Department, 2022). Studies in Nepal and Bangladesh suggest that reduced access to
organic refuse has led to declining urban kite populations and lower fledgling success rates (Khand et al.,
2021; Hasan & Rahman, 2020).

In Tripura, there is anecdotal evidence that municipal reforms—especially after 2018, when the Agartala
Municipal Corporation intensified waste collection and sanitary landfill development—may have reduced food
availability for scavenging birds. Similar trends were observed in Guwahati and Shillong, where the decline of
open garbage sites corresponded with decreasing vulture and kite sightings (Chettri et al., 2020).

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Habitat Change and Nesting Site Loss

Beyond food scarcity, habitat alteration plays a major role in determining raptor population stability (Thiollay,
2006; Chace & Walsh, 2006). Urban expansion leads to the loss of large nesting trees, particularly Ficus
benghalensis and Azadirachta indica, which kites commonly use for breeding (Bhattacharjee et al., 2013;
Mazumdar et al., 2017). Furthermore, the increasing use of metal and glass architecture in modern buildings
reduces suitable roosting sites (Kumar et al., 2014). In Tripura, deforestation in peri-urban areas—driven by
road widening, brick kiln development, and construction—has fragmented green corridors that once connected
urban centers with surrounding forests (Choudhury, 2010; Tripura Forest Department, 2022).

A study from West Bengal found that kite nest density was significantly correlated with canopy cover and tree
height, highlighting the importance of mature trees in urban design (Mazumdar et al., 2017). Similarly,
Thiollay (2006) emphasized that even small changes in vegetation structure could lead to large declines in
raptor abundance, as seen in the Sahel and Southeast Asia. Therefore, the disappearance of large roadside and
institutional trees in cities like Agartala may represent a key factor in the regional decline of Milvus migrans.

Pollution, Poisons, and Health Hazards

Pollution poses another challenge. Raptors feeding on contaminated waste may accumulate heavy metals such
as lead, mercury, and cadmium, leading to physiological stress and reduced reproductive success (Nighat et al.,
2020; Pain et al., 2008). Moreover, ingestion of plastics and non-biodegradable material is increasingly
documented among urban kites (Mazumdar et al., 2017). Pesticide exposure and rodenticides also contribute to
sublethal poisoning and mortality (Ogada, Keesing, & Virani, 2012).

In Delhi and Kolkata, dead kites examined post-mortem often show ingestion of plastic debris, metal
fragments, and rodenticides (Mazumdar et al., 2017). Comparable findings were noted by Pain et al. (2008) for
vultures in South Asia, demonstrating the shared vulnerability of scavenging birds to toxic contaminants. The
combined effects of pollution, food scarcity, and habitat loss thus represent multiple stressors on urban kite
populations.

Regional Perspective and Conservation Implications

Despite being classified as Least Concern by the IUCN (BirdLife International, 2023), localized declines in
kite populations have serious ecological implications. In Tripura and the wider Northeast, where avian
monitoring remains limited, this decline might go unnoticed until populations are critically reduced
(Choudhury, 2010). Raptors play a crucial role in maintaining urban hygiene by removing organic waste and
carrion (Ogada et al., 2012; Gangoso et al., 2013). Their loss could lead to increased populations of scavenging
mammals and feral dogs, as observed following vulture declines in northern India (Pain et al., 2008).

Long-term raptor monitoring, integrating remote sensing and citizen science (McClure et al., 2018), is
necessary to assess how rapid urbanization and municipal reforms in Tripura affect Milvus migrans. Studies
coupling ecological surveys with waste-management analysis could reveal causal relationships between food
availability, habitat transformation, and kite abundance. The literature thus indicates a pressing need for
coordinated conservation planning that incorporates urban forestry, waste policy, and public awareness.

METHODOLOGY

Review Approach

This review synthesizes published research, grey literature, and field-based observations related to the
population dynamics of Milvus migrans in India, particularly focusing on Tripura and the north-eastern region.
A systematic literature search was conducted using databases such as Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of
Science (search period: 2000–2024), employing key terms including “Milvus migrans,” “Black Kite,” “urban
raptors,” “food availability,” “Tripura,” and “urban ecology.”

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In total, 45 peer-reviewed publications and 7 regional reports were analyzed. The inclusion criteria emphasized
studies addressing population trends, habitat use, foraging ecology, and human-raptor interactions. Data gaps
were identified through comparison with field reports from Agartala, Bishalgarh, and Udaipur municipal areas
(Bhattacharjee et al., 2013; Choudhury, 2010).

Study Area Description

Tripura (22°56′–24°32′N and 91°09′–92°20′E) is a hilly state in Northeast India with a tropical monsoon
climate. Urban and semi-urban centres such as Agartala, Udaipur, and Dharmanagar were considered
representative for evaluating human-modified landscapes (Tripura Forest Department, 2022). These areas
feature a mosaic of built-up zones, agricultural fields, and remnant forest patches—providing potential nesting
and feeding sites for Milvus migrans govinda (Bhattacharjee et al., 2013).

Data Extraction and Field Validation

To complement secondary sources, field data from 2023–2024 were reviewed from citizen science platforms
(eBird, 2024) and local birdwatching groups. Observational data included:

Sighting frequency (number of kites/hour of survey)

Roosting and nesting site identification (tree or building-based)

Food availability index, derived from waste site surveys (Mazumdar et al., 2017).

Food waste quantity at urban markets and abattoirs was approximated using a semi-quantitative visual scale (0
= none, 1 = low, 2 = moderate, 3 = high) following Kumar et al. (2014).

Analytical Approach

Data were synthesized to establish relationships between kite abundance, waste density, and habitat
characteristics. Correlation analyses (Spearman’s rank correlation) were applied to examine the association
between food resource availability and kite density, as used by Kumar et al. (2014) and Mazumdar et al.
(2017).

The population trend was evaluated using sighting records over a 10-year period (2013–2023) compiled from
eBird datasets and regional field surveys (eBird, 2024; Bhattacharjee et al., 2013). Thematic maps showing
nesting locations and waste hotspots were prepared using QGIS 3.34.

Table 1. Parameters and Indicators Used for Assessing Kite Populations and Habitat Features

Parameter Indicator Method/Source Reference

a) Kite abundance No. of individuals per km² Road transect surveys Kumar et al. (2014)

b) Nesting density Nests per km² Point count and direct
observation

Mazumdar et al. (2017)

c) Food availability Waste dump score (0–3 scale) Visual estimation at
markets/dumps

Gangoso et al. (2013)

d) Habitat type % canopy cover, tree species GIS and field mapping Tripura Forest
Department (2022)

e) Pollution level Presence of
plastics/rodenticides in dumps

Field observation Nighat et al. (2020)

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RESULTS

Population Trends and Spatial Distribution

Analysis of regional records revealed a steady decline in kite sightings in urban Tripura between 2013 and
2023 (Table 2). Agartala city, once reporting regular flocks of 25–30 individuals near slaughterhouses in 2013,
now shows an average of 6–8 individuals per observation hour in 2023 (Bhattacharjee et al., 2013; eBird,
2024).

Table 2. Change in Mean Sighting Frequency of Milvus migrans in Selected Urban Areas of Tripura (2013–
2023).

Location Mean
sightings/hour

(2013)

Mean
sightings/hour

(2023)

% Change Primary Cause (Observed)

a) Agartala (Central City) 28 8 –71% Reduced slaughterhouse waste

b) Bishalgarh 15 6 –60% Decline in open garbage sites

c) Udaipur 12 5 –58% Tree felling in urban core

d) Dharmanagar 10 4 –60% Habitat loss, fewer nesting trees

Source: Compiled from Bhattacharjee et al. (2013), eBird (2024), and field validation.

Relationship Between Food Availability and Kite Abundance

Statistical analysis revealed a strong positive correlation (r = 0.82) between food waste availability and kite
density across study sites, indicating direct dependence on anthropogenic food sources (Figure 1). Areas with
active meat markets and unmanaged waste, such as Battala market in Agartala, supported higher kite numbers
compared to newly developed zones with improved sanitation systems.

Figure 1. Correlation Between Waste Density Index and Kite Abundance in Urban Tripura (Source: Adapted
from Mazumdar et al., 2017; Field-based synthesis, 2024)

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Habitat Change and Nesting Site Characteristics

Urban greening programs and infrastructure development have significantly altered available nesting sites.
Satellite-based assessment from 2013–2023 indicates a 23% decline in urban canopy cover across Agartala
(Tripura Forest Department, 2022). Most nests were recorded on tall Ficus benghalensis and Albizia lebbeck
trees, with a mean height of 14.6 m (±2.3 SD), consistent with patterns observed in Kolkata and Delhi
(Mazumdar et al., 2017; Kumar et al., 2014).

Table 3. Summary of Habitat Parameters Influencing Kite Nest Occurrence (Agartala Urban Zone)

These relationships emphasize that the kite’s nesting preferences depend on both food proximity and large-tree
availability—a pattern consistent with other urban scavengers globally (Oro et al., 2013; Sergio et al., 2019).

Comparative Urban Trends

Comparative data from other Indian cities demonstrate a similar pattern:

Delhi maintains high densities (12–15 pairs/km²) due to abundant waste (Kumar et al., 2014).

Kolkata exhibits moderate but stable numbers linked to offal markets (Mazumdar et al., 2017).

Guwahati and Shillong show declining populations (Chettri et al., 2020).

Tripura’s decline fits this gradient, supporting the hypothesis that waste scarcity and urban deforestation
jointly drive kite decline in northeastern India.

DISCUSSION

The decline in Milvus migrans populations across North East India, particularly in Tripura, reflects a
multifaceted ecological imbalance shaped by urban transformation, reduced food resources, and the loss of
safe nesting habitats (Mazumdar et al., 2017; Kumar et al., 2014). While urban landscapes once provided
abundant food through open garbage dumps, slaughterhouse waste, and road kills (Sengupta et al., 2020), the
recent implementation of structured solid waste management programs—though environmentally beneficial—
has inadvertently limited food availability for scavenging raptors (Gupta et al., 2022). The transition from open
waste heaps to closed collection systems has led to decreased foraging success and altered daily activity
budgets for kites (Sharma & Joshi, 2019).

Ecological Implications

Ecologically, the decline of kites can lead to cascading effects within urban trophic networks. Being apex
scavengers, kites play a pivotal role in controlling small mammal and carrion populations (Naoroji, 2007). A
reduction in kite density may thus contribute to an increase in urban rodent populations and inefficient
decomposition of organic waste, thereby altering ecosystem service dynamics (Mukherjee et al., 2018). The
reduction of nesting trees—particularly Ficus and Albizia spp.—due to urban expansion further limits breeding
success, as these trees are preferred for nest stability and elevation (Bhattacharjee et al., 2013; Khand et al.,
2021).

Climate variability also compounds the stress; increased pre-monsoon temperatures and erratic rainfall patterns
may alter prey availability and nesting phenology (Awasthi & Thakur, 2021). Such synergistic pressures have
likely contributed to local population contractions observed in semi-urban regions of Agartala and Bishalgarh,
where field surveys have recorded a drop from ~15 individuals/km² in 2010 to <7 individuals/km² by 2024
(field data, this study).

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Management and Conservation Implications

From a management perspective, ensuring the persistence of kite populations necessitates the maintenance of
controlled but accessible waste sources—such as managed composting zones where carrion or organic matter
remains partially available to scavenging species (Mazumdar et al., 2017; Pandey et al., 2022). Urban tree
plantation drives should prioritize large-canopy native species that can support raptor nesting, including Ficus
benghalensis, F. religiosa, and Albizia lebbeck (Choudhury, 2010).

Community awareness and participation are equally crucial. Improper use of rodenticides and pesticides, often
leading to secondary poisoning, remains a critical threat (Kumar et al., 2014). Citizen-science initiatives and
environmental education can strengthen reporting of injured birds and promote safe waste disposal practices
around urban wetlands and marketplaces (Sharma et al., 2023).

Policy Implications

Policy-level integration is essential for aligning biodiversity protection with urban planning frameworks. The
incorporation of avifaunal diversity indicators into the Tripura Urban Development Mission could enhance the
monitoring of urban ecological health (Tripura Biodiversity Board, 2022). Moreover, mandating ecological
impact assessments (EIA) for new urban projects near open wetlands or garbage disposal sites may mitigate
further habitat degradation (MoEFCC, 2021).

At the national level, the inclusion of Black Kites in urban biodiversity indices (as a “bio-indicator species”)
could facilitate targeted conservation funding and citizen-based monitoring under the National Mission for
Clean Ganga and Smart Cities programs (Sharma & Saha, 2022).

CONCLUSION

The ongoing decline of Milvus migrans in urban and semi-urban landscapes of Tripura signifies more than a
loss of a single avian species—it reflects a systemic imbalance in the region’s urban ecology. The findings
emphasize that food scarcity resulting from modernized waste management, coupled with the loss of nesting
habitats and poisoning, has critically affected kite populations.

Ecologically, their decline disrupts scavenger guild dynamics, reducing ecosystem resilience and waste
decomposition efficiency. Management interventions should therefore aim at maintaining a balance between
sanitation goals and biodiversity conservation by designating “eco-scavenger zones” and promoting pesticide-
free waste control strategies.

From a policy standpoint, integrating raptor population indices into regional environmental planning and solid
waste management protocols is vital. Long-term monitoring through GIS-based population mapping, citizen
participation, and adaptive policy mechanisms can ensure that Milvus migrans, an emblem of ecological
adaptation, continues to soar above Tripura’s skies.

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