INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 436
Physico-Chemical and Sensory Evaluation of Cookies from
Arrowroot Starch Enriched With Malted Soybean Flour
Dorcas Nguemo Kundam
1*2
, Member Aondona
1
and Happiness Nguvan Orjime
1
1
Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Mkar, Mkar Gboko, Benue State, Nigeria
2
Centre for Food Technology and Research, Benue State University, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria
*Corresponding Author
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51584/IJRIAS.2025.1010000032
Received: 10 Jan 2025; Accepted: 20 Jan 2025; Published: 31 October 2025
ABSTRACT
Exploring Prospects for industrial utilization of arrowroot (Tacca involucrata) starch and desire to increase its
nutritional content prompted this research. Cookies was produced from Arrowroot starch enriched with malted
Soybean flour at different proportions of 100:0, 90:10, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40. 100% wheat flour was used as the
control. Functional properties of the wheat and flour blends, proximate composition, mineral, vitamin content,
physical properties, and sensory evaluation of the cookies were determined. Respectively, the functional
properties of flour samples indicated Bulk density, dispersibility, oil and water adsorption capacity, swelling
index, swelling capacity ranged 0.41-1.73g/ml, 79.09-99.26 %, 55.27-95.15 (g/Cm
3
), 64.72-80.15, 0.10-0.54
ml/g, and 147.53-204.27 %. Proximate composition of cookies showed moisture, ash, fibre, fat, protein,
carbohydrate, energy ranged 3.24-4.82 %, 2.65-4.50 %, 1.75-3.08 %, 1.74-3.04 %, 9.66-23.46 %, 66.90-80.46
%, and 357.14-376.97 Kcal/100g. Mineral content (mg/100g) of cookies revealed sodium, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, zinc, and iron ranged 69.30-91.30, 98.56-117.04, 46.78-57.46, 58.19-77.51, 4.85-7.05, 69 and
1.43-2.45. Vitamin content (mg/100g) of cookies specified vitamins A,C, D,E and K ranged 988-1658, 0.002-
O.007, 0.06-0.13, 1.85-5.34, and 13.46-22.36. Physical properties of cookies presented width, thickness,
weight, fragility, diameter, spread ratio, and spread factor ranged 30.27-32.20 cm, 2.60-4.77 cm, 9.33-11.00 g,
283.33-616.67, 5.04-5.36 cm, 1.07-1.94, and 68.51-116. Based on sensory properties, the samples competed
favorably with the control. There were significant differences (p<0.05) in all the values. Cookies from flour
blend level 90:10 had highest overall acceptability. However, cookies from the flour blends of 70: 30 and
60:40 are recommended as best based on protein recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of adults (10%-
35%). The lack of gluten in arrowroot starch makes it ideal as a replacement for wheat flour in baking, hence
can be exploited for its potential use industrially as a snack food.
Keywords: Arrowroot, Cookies, Malted, Tacca involucrata, enriched.
INTRODUCTION
Cookies are popular examples of quick, ready-to-eat snack bakery product that possess numerous attractive
features including wide consumption, carrying convenience, long shelf-life, tasty to eat, reasonably cheap and
can serve as vehicles for important nutrient if made readily available to people [1], [2]. According to
Uthumporn et al. [3], cookies with high nutritional value are greatly needed for proper functioning of body
systems and potential health benefits. The main ingredients of cookies are wheat flour, fat (margarine) and
sugar. They can also be enriched or fortified with other ingredients in order to meet specific Nutritional or
therapeutic needs of consumers [1].
Roots and tubers refer to any growing plant that stores edible material in subterranean root, corm and tuber [4]
and could substitute wheat in cookies production. African Arrowroot (Tacca involucrata) is a tuber found in
the family of Taccaceae of the genus it is popular for its natural starch with almost zero fat [5]. It is widely
distributed in most parts of the forest and Savannah region of Nigeria has also remained underutilized [6]. But,
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 437
neglected and underutilized crops could play prominent roles in improving nutritional status and sustaining the
impoverished rural African populations. Arrowroot starch is attracting interests from the industries that
produce starch due to reports of its differentiated properties in bakery products, being used as a thickener in
desserts and baked goods, food for elderly or patients with intestinal disorders. It may have additional health
benefits to people following gluten-free diet or those managing their blood sugar and weight [7]. However,
Studies revealed that Arrowroot is essentially composed of carbohydrate (90-92%) with very low level of
proteins (2-3%), ash (2.5%) and lipids (2.1%) [7,8,9]. Hence, the need to enrich it with nutrient dense legumes
like Soybeans, African yam beans, etc
Soybean sprouts are highly digestible and a good source of protein, vitamins and minerals [10]. Germination of
soybean seeds is one of the best methods utilized in the improvement of nutritional profile of the soybean and
which could be used for the food products development. It enhances bioavailability of the minerals, vitamins
and dietary fibers which are of immense impact nutritionally and on health [11]. During germination, the
protein content of soy flour is 6.90 percent higher with increase in essential amino acid content of mainly
lysine, valine and threonine. In addition, there is increase in iron, vitamin A and vitamin B2 content as
compared to the non-germinated soybean flour. Malted soybean protein constitutes about 40% of the total
solids and plays a very important role in the enrichment of baked goods [12].
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Source of Raw Materials
Wheat flour, Soy bean, Arrowroot (Tacca involucrata) tubers and other baking ingredients such as eggs,
baking powder, fat, sugar were obtained from Ortese market Mkar, Benue Gboko, Benue State Nigeria. All
chemicals used were of analytical grade.
Methods
Preparation of arrowroot starch
Arrowroot starch was produced according to method of Chusut et al. [13]. with slight modification as shown
in figure1
Figure 1: Flow Chart for Production of Arrowroot Starch
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 438
Source: Chusut et al. [13].
Processing of malted soybeans flour
Malted Soybean flour was produced using method of Ayo et al. [14] with slight modification as shown in
figure 2.
Figure 2: Flow Chart for Production of Malted Soybean flour
Source: Ayo et al. [14]
Blends formulation of arrowroot starch and malted soybean flour
Blend formulation of Arrowroot starch and malted Soybean flour with Wheat flour as the control sample is as
shown in Table 1.
Table1: Blend Formulation of Arrowroot starch enriched with malted Soybean flour
Samples
Wheat flour
(%WF)
Arrowroot starch
(%ARS)
Malted soybean Flour
(MSF%)
A (control 100WF)
100
0
0
B (100ARS:OMSF)
0
100
0
C (90ARS:10MSF)
0
90
10
D (80ARS:20MSF)
0
80
20
E (70ARS:30MSF)
0
70
30
F (60ARS:40MSF)
0
60
40
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 439
Source: Modified method – Uthumporn, et al. [3].
Cookies recipe
The recipe of cookies from arrowroot starch enriched with malted soybean flour was according to the modified
recipe of Kundam et al. [15] as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Recipes for Cookies from Arrowroot starch enriched with malted Soybean flour
Composition (g)
54.5
20
20
5
0.5
Source: Kundam, et al. [15] Modified
Cookies from arrowroot starch enriched malted soybean flour
Cookies were prepared according to the method of Kundam, et al.[15] as shown in figure 3.
Figure 3: Flow Chart for Production of Cookies
Source: Kundam, et al.[15]
Analyses
Functional properties of flours
Functional properties such as bulk density, dispersibility, water absorption capacity, oil absorption capacity,
swelling index, and swelling capacity were determined as described by the standard methods of AOAC [16].
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 440
Proximate composition of cookies from arrowroot starch enriched with malted soybean flour
Proximate composition was determined using the standard AOAC, [16]. The samples were analyzed for
moisture, ash, crude fiber, crude fat and crude protein. Carbohydrate was calculated by the difference. The
energy content of the cookies was determined using the equation shown in (i).
 ( 100 ⁄ ) = 4 × % + 9 × % + 4 × %ℎ (i)
Vitamin content of cookies from arrowroot starch enriched with malted soybean flour
The methods AOAC [16] were used to determine vitamins A, B
1
, C, D, E and K.
Mineral content of cookies from arrowroot starch enriched with malted soybean flour
Mineral content of samples: Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Phosphorus, zinc and
Manganese were determined using the standard methods described by the AOAC [16].
Physical properties of cookies from arrowroot starch enriched with malted soybean flour
Physical properties of cookies were determined according to Kundam, et al. [15]. The spread factor (SF) was
determined from the width and thickness figures as in equation (ii).
SF=
x C.F x 10. (ii)
Where, C.F is the correction factor for adjusting
to constant atmospheric pressure. For this work correction
factor C,F = 1.00. Diameter and thickness of the cookies was used to determine the spread ratio (SP) as
described by Sengev, et al. [17], in equation (iii).
SP =


(Sengev, et al.) [17] (iii).
Sensory properties of cookies from arrowroot starch enriched with malted soybean flour
The sensory evaluation of the cookies was determined according to the procedure of Kundam et al. [15] based
on six attributes: appearance, aroma, crispiness, texture, taste and overall acceptability on a 9-point hedonic
scale where a higher score indicates better quality attributes. Twenty-four hours after preparation of the
cookies, sensory evaluation was carried out. A total of 50 semi-trained panellists were recruited from students
(age’s 20-24years) of the University of Mkar, Mkar. The criteria for selection of panellists were that, the
students were familiar with and regular consumers of cookies and were not allergic to any food. They were
instructed to rinse their mouths with water after every sample and not to make comments during evaluation to
prevent influencing other panellists. They were also asked to comment freely on the samples on the
questionnaires administered to them. The samples were identified with three-digit code numbers and presented
in a random sequence to panellists.
Statistical Analysis
Determinations were carried out in triplicate. Results are presented as mean value ± standard deviation and
analyzed by one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS software package version 26. Significant
differences between means were determined by Duncan multiple range test (DMRT) at 95 % confidence limit.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Functional Properties of Flours from Arrowroot starch enriched with malted Soybean flour
Functional properties of a food material are parameters that determine its application and end use [18].
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 441
Results on the functional properties of the flours are presented in Table 3. Significant (p < .05) differences
were observed in functional properties of the flours. The bulk density (BD) ranged 0.41-1.73 g/ml; showed
decreased as the incorporation of malted soybean flour increased. However, Chandra and Shamer [19]
obtained higher values from a range of 0.72-0.91 g/cm3 which could be because their flours were from single
wheat, rice, millet and potato flours and not blends. This result is in agreement with the results of Ohizua et
al.[20] with a bulk density of 0.48-0.92g/ml. Higher bulk density is desirable for greater ease of dispersibility
and reduction of paste thickness; while low bulk density of flour is a good physical attribute when determining
transportation and storability [21].
Dispersibility is an index that measures how well flour or flour blends can be rehydrated with water. It ranged
from 79.09-99.26%, which is higher than the dispersibilities of the flour blends (64.67-70.0 %) reported by
Adeola et al.[22] for sorghum, pigeon pea and Soybean flour blends. All the flour blends had relatively high
dispersibility, signifying that they would reconstitute easily to fine consistent dough or pudding during mixing
[23].
Oil absorption capacity measures the ability of food material to absorb oil. It is the flavour retaining capacity
of flour which is very important in food formulations [20]. The mechanism of fat absorption is attributed
mainly to the physical entrapment of oil and the binding of fat to a polar chain of protein. Non-polar amino
acid side chains can form hydrophobic interaction with hydrocarbon chains of lipids [24]. Oil Adsorption
Capacity ranged from 55.27-95.15%. The oil adsorption capacity increased with increase in malted soybean
flour addition. The highest oil absorption capacity was recorded in sample F as a result of its highest malted
soybean content. Elochukwu et al. [25], reported similar increase of oil absorption capacity for wheat-plantain
and wheat-defatted cashew kernel composite flours. Oil absorption capacities of foods increase with increased
protein content since the protein in foods influences fat absorption. Sample F had higher oil absorption
capacity as a result of the hydrophobic character of protein in the flour. The presence of protein exposes more
non-polar amino acids to the fat and enhances hydrophobicity as a result of which the flour absorbs more oil
[26].
Water Adsorption Capacity (WAC) characteristic represents the ability of the product to associate with water
under conditions when water is limiting such as dough and pastes.It ranged 64.72-80.15%. The water
adsorption capacity decreases with increase in malted soybean flour. Significant reduction of water absorption
capacity was identified in sample F (64.72 g/cm3) having the least value. This result conforms to the work of
Malomo et al. [27], where the WAC decreases with increasing protein content.
Swelling index of flours depends on size of particles, type of variety, and types of processing methods or unit
operation [19]. Wheat flour (WF) had the highest swelling index value (0.54
ml/g) while the arrowroot (TC)
flour had the lowest (0.10 ml/g). Increase in the inclusion of malted soybean flour resulted in the increase of
swelling index. The ability of flour to absorb and retain water suggests better performance in texture and baked
product as reported by Olaitan, et al. [28].
The swelling capacity is used in the determination of the amount of water that food samples can absorb and the
degree of swelling within a given time. It ranged 147.52-204.27 %, there was significant (p ) different
amongst samples. The Swelling capacity increased with increasing level of malted soybean flour inclusion.
Highest swelling capacity was reported in sample F which had the highest quantity of malted soybean flour.
High swelling capacity has been reported as part of the criteria for a good quality product [29].
Table 3: Functional Properties of Flours from Arrowroot starch enriched with malted Soybean flour
Samples
(%)
Bulk
density
(g/ml)
Dispersibility
(mL/G)
Oil absorption
Capacity
(g/Cm
3
)
Water
absorption
Capacity(g/Cm
3
)
Swelling
Index
(mL/g)
Swelling
Capacity
(%)
A (control
100WF)
0.83
ab
±0
79.09
d
±0.58
55.27
f
±0.06
80.15
a
±0.04
0.54
a
±0.04
155.85
e
±0.35
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 442
.02
B(100ARS:
OMSF)
1.73
a
±0.
10
99.25
a
±0.01
70.39
e
±0.39
78.33
a
±0.02
0.10
e
±0.01
147.52
f
±0.04
C(90ARS:1
0MSF)
0.88
b
±0.
01
99.26
a
±0.01
80.22
d
±0.01
71.58
b
±5.91
0.17
d
±0.02
162.90
d
±0.35
D(80ARS:2
0MSF)
0.85
bc
±0
.01
98.84
ab
±0.02
82.52
c
±0.02
66.43
c
±0.01
0.29
c
±0.06
184.56
c
±0.70
E(70ARS:3
0MSF)
0.80
c
±0.
10
98.28
a
±0.51
85.19
b
±0.06
64.72
c
±0.09
0.30
c
±0.04
195.12
b
±0.52
F(60ARS:4
0MSF)
0.41
d
±0.
01
89.15
c
±0.01
95.15
a
±0.06
64.72
c
±0.08
0.38
b
±0.02
204.27
a
±0.89
Values are means± standard deviations of triplicates. Means in the same column with different superscripts are
significantly (p<0.05) different
Proximate composition of Cookies from Arrowroot starch enriched with malted Soybean flour (%)
The proximate composition of foods is used to determine the nutritive value and acceptability of the food
products. The result is presented in Table 4. Moisture, crude protein, ash, crude fiber, fat, carbohydrate and
energy. The moisture content of the Cookies ranged 3.24-4.82%. It decreased with increasing malted soybean
flour inclusion. Low moisture content is advantageous, as high moisture content has been associated with short
shelf life of baked products, as they encourage microbial proliferation that lead to spoilage [30]. This results
agree with Ikuomola et al.[31] who reported moisture content of 3.34-4.06% for cookies. The moisture content
of a product is an index of the shelf life of that product.
The crude protein content of the Cookies samples ranged 7.34-23.46 %. Sample B had lowest and F highest.
The protein content increase with increasing addition of malted soybean flour. due to its high protein content.
The increase in protein content are within the range as the findings of Ikuomola et al.[31] and Ufot et al.[32].
The high protein content in the malted soybean fortified Cookies would be of nutritional importance in most
developing countries like Nigeria where many people can hardly afford high proteinous foods because of high
cost.
Fat is essential component of tissues and a veritable source for fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K). It is able
to supply thrice the amount of energy required by the body. The values of the fat content ranged1.74-3.04%.
The lowest value was observed in sample B and highest in F (3.04%) which could be resultant increasing
malted soybean flour inclusions. These values are relatively low. However, the low-fat content of cookies is
advantageous as high oil content in Cookies would affect the shelf stability.
The ash content of the cookies samples increased with increasing inclusion of malted soybean flour 2.65% to
4.50%. Higher ash contents indicated that the mineral content was higher in the malted soybean flour.
The crude fibre content of the cookies was lowest in sample B (1.75%) and highest in F (3.06%). This result
indicated that malted soybean flour contains higher amount of crude fiber than arrow root and wheat flour.
This could be the reason an increasing in fiber content was observed as increasing proportion of germinated
soybean flour were added. The crude fibre contents of the Cookies, was within the recommended range of not
more than 6 g dietary fibre and other non absorbable carbohydrates per 100 g dry matter [33]. Consumption of
high fibre food products has been linked to reduction in hermorrhoids, diabetes, high blood pressure, and
obesity [34].
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 443
The carbohydrate content of the cookies decreased with increased addition of germinated soybeans flour from
81.70 %-62.68
%. The reason for the reduction could be due to the increasing in protein, fat, and fiber content
of the cookies as the proportion of germinated soybean flour in the formulation was increasing. A similar
reduction in carbohydrate content was also reported by Atobatele, et al. [35] in their study of blending wheat
flour with residue from king palm processing which contains a higher fiber, ash and fat content than wheat
flour. Energy is the amount of calorie available from food that is available through oxidation. Nutritionist
usually talk about the number of calorie in a gram of a nutrient. Fats have the greatest amount of food energy
9kcal/g while proteins and most carbohydrates have about 4kcal/g [36]. The energy values ranged 369.32-
374.92 Kcal/100g are higher than those reported in biscuits produced from wheat-orange-fleshed flour
composite by Andualem et al. [37]. The high caloric values observed from this research result implies that,
these cookies produced can provide consumers with requires energy for all bodily functions.
Table 4: Proximate Composition of Cookies from Arrowroot starch enriched with malted Soybean flour
Sample
Moisture
(%)
Ash (%)
Fiber (%)
Fat (%)
Protein (%)
Cho (%)
Energy
Kcal/100g
A
4.58
a
±0.47
3.35
d
±0.07
2.14
d
±0.03
2.24
b
±0.39
10.87
d
±0.43
76.82
c
±0.46
370.92
c
±1.47
B
4.82
a
±0.48
2.65
f
±0.10
1.75
f
±0.01
1.74
d
±0.06
7.34
f
±0.01
81.70
a
±0.49
371.82
c
±1.97
C
4.08
b
±0.27
3.08
e
±0.15
1.93
e
±0.01
1.87
c
±0.02
9.66
e
±0.31
79.38
b
±0.18
372.99
b
±1.88
D
4.37
ab
±0.13
3.54
c
±0.27
2.36
c
±0.02
2.08
b
±0.22
12.40
c
±0.46
75.25
d
±0.78
369.32
d
±2.37
E
3.43
c
±0.67
3.98
b
±0.01
2.66
b
±0.02
3.04
a
±0.16
14.61
b
±0.26
72.28
e
±0.46
374.92
a
±0.36
F
3.24
c
±0.19
4.50
a
±0.05
3.08
a
±0.02
3.04
a
±0.16
23.46
a
±4.9
62.68
f
±5.49
371.92
c
±3.67
Values are means± standard deviations of triplicates. Means in the same column with different superscripts are
significantly (p<0.05) different
Minerals Content of Cookies from Arrowroot starch enriched with malted Soybean flour
Minerals are inorganic elements which are essential for the normal functioning of the body. They are necessary
in smaller quantities in addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fats and vitamins, they are inorganic or “ash
constituents” of foods which cannot be destroyed by heating. The higher the ash content, the more its mineral
contents [38] The minerals compositions of the cookies are presented in table 5. Sodium ranged 69.3
-91.30
mg/100g
The control sample A had the highest (91.30 mg/100g) followed by sample F (86.53 mg/ 100g). The result
demonstrated an increase in sodium content of composite flours with increasing inclusion of malted soybean
flour. Sodium is the principal extracellular cation and is used for acid-base balance and osmo-regulation,
Sodium stimulates cell proliferation, protein synthesis and increase cell mass [39].
The potassium content of samples ranged 98.56-117.04 mg/100g. Sample F having 115.04 mg/100g,
compared favourably with the control. Samples showed significant difference (p<0.05) in their potassium
content. The potassium content of Cookies from the blends, increased with increasing inclusion of malted
soybean flour. The most abundant mineral in the composite cookies is potassium followed by sodium which
corresponded with the finding of Ufot et al.[32].
Calcium plays a major role in muscle function, formation and strengthening of bones, teeth, conducting nerve
impulses, and blood clotting, and maintaining a normal heartbeat [40]. This study revealed significant presence
of calcium in cookies from the blends and this is attributed to the calcium contents of germinated soybean
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 444
flour. The calcium ranged 46.78 - 57.46 mg/100g. The highest value (57.46 mg/100g) was observed in the
sample F, because soybean is rich source of calcium.
Magnesium regulates diverse biochemical reactions in the body, including protein synthesis, muscle and nerve
functions, blood glucose control and blood pressure regulation. It also keeps bones strong and heart rhythm
steady [41]. The magnesium content of cookies samples ranged 58.19-77.51mg/100g. Sample F (72.56
mg/100g) compared favourably with the control.
Zinc is required for good immune system function, cell growth, wound healing, and insulin function [42].
Sample F was higher in zinc content (7.05 mg/100g) than all other samples, It was observed that increasing
inclusion of malted soybean flour resulted in the progressive increase in zinc contents.
The iron content of cookies ranged 1.43-2.45 mg/100g. Result showed a progressive increase in iron content of
cookies with increasing level of germinated soybean flour inclusion.
Iron aids in transport of oxygen in red blood cells and in muscles [43]. Hence, an indication of Iron presence in
these cookies is very vital.
Table 5: Minerals Content of Cookies from Arrowroot starch enriched with malted Soybean flour (mg/100g)
Samples
Sodium
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium
Zinc
Iron
A
91.30
a
±0.02
117.04
a
±0.02
50.06
c
±0.04
77.51
a
±0.02
4.85
f
±0.02
1.43
f
±0.02
B
69.3
f
±0.05
98.56
f
±0.05
46.78
e
±0.03
58.19
f
±0.02
4.93
e
±0.03
1.54
e
±0.03
C
75.03
e
±0.01
106.06
e
±0.04
48.58
d
±0.02
62.57±0.03
5.84
d
±0.03
1.72
d
±0.01
D
82.38
d
±0.03
107.07
d
±0.03
50.02
c
±0.09
65.79
d
±0.02
5.96
c
±0.02
1.87
c
±0.03
E
85.03
c
±0.10
110.48
c
±0.04
54.47
b
±0.03
70.27
c
±0.03
6.04
b
±0.02
2.08
b
±0.04
F
86.53
b
±0.01
115.04
b
±0.03
57.46
a
±0.04
72.56
b
±0.05
7.05
a
±0.03
2.45
a
±0.02
Values are means± standard deviations of triplicates. Means in the same column with different superscripts are
significantly (p<0.05) different
Vitamin Content of Cookies from Arrowroot starch enriched with malted Soybean flour
Vitamin content of Cookies samples is presented in Table 6. Vitamins are essential organic compounds having
a high impact on human health. They are vital for plant and animal metabolism since they serve as enzymatic
cofactors [44]. Deficiencies of vitamins could lead to disorders which can be severe and even fatal so adequate
intake can be prevention as humans cannot synthesize vitamins, they must be assimilated from diets [44]. It
was observed that increasing inclusion of malted soybean flour resulted in increasing vitamin content of the
samples.
Vitamin A content ranged from 988 to 1530 mg / 100 g. This results are similar to the one published by Logue,
[45].
The vitamin C content of cookies ranged 10.46-22.36 mg/100g demostrating significant (p<0.05) difference
amongst samples. Higher vitamin C content was recorded for wheat flour cookies, but sample F compared
favourably with wheat cookies. High vitamin C content of the cookies suggests that the various Cookies were a
good sources of vitamin C.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 445
The vitamin D content of Cookies samples ranged 0.06 - 0.13 mg/100g indicating vitamin D content was in
small quantities in the samples. Sample F having just more than the others.
Result demonstrated a progressive increase in the vitamin E content of cookies with increasing inclusion of
malted soybean flour. It ranged1.85-5.34 mg/100g. The higher content was in sample F which compares
favourably with Mirwais et al.[46] who reported 5.91 mg/100g in germinated soybean. This is in consonance
with Aguilera et al.[47], who reported that germination is a cheap and current technology to enhance the
nutritional quality of vegetables, by its improving antioxidant capacity, digestibility of proteins, increasing
vitamins C and E content and reducing anti-nutritional factors.
Vitamin k was observed to be present in minute quantities ranged 0.002 to 0.007 mg/100g.
Table 6: Vitamin Content of Cookies from Arrowroot starch enriched with malted Soybean flour (mg/100g)
Sample
VIT A
VIT C
VIT D
VIT E
VIT K
A
1141
d
±1.65
22.36
a
±0.43
0.07
bc
±0.12
3.30
d
±0.01
0.002
e
±0.00
B
988
f
.±1.88
10.46
f
±1.12
0.06
c
±0.1
1.85
f
±0.00
0.002
e
±0.00
C
1007
e
±1.66
14.32
e
±0.40
0.06
c
±0.01
2.15
e
±0.01
0.003
d
±0.00
D
1186
c
±1.45
17.07
d
±2.28
0.08
b
±0.01
3.58
c
±0.00
0.004
c
±0.00
E
1530
b
±1.47
19.15
c
±1.14
0.09
b
±0.00
3.65
b
±0.01
0.006
b
±0.00
F
1658
a
±1.66
20.52
b
±0.23
0.13
a
±0.00
5.34
a
±0.02
0.007
a
±0.00
Values are means± standard deviations of triplicates. Means in the same column with different superscripts are
significantly (p<0.05) different.
Physical properties of Cookies from Arrowroot starch enriched with malted Soybean flour
Physical properties the cookies are presented in Table 7. Results revealed that the physical characteristics of
the prepared cookies varied with the variation in the proportion of malted soybean flours in the different
samples. Similar observations have been reported by other authors [48, 5]. The diameter of cookies ranged
5.04-5.36 Mm and decreased as the proportion of germinated soybean increased. This could be due to the fact
that, germinated soybean is gluten free, the high sugar, fat and fibre contents of the malted soybean absorbed
much water, leading to swelling, gelling and binding together, thus preventing spreading
The thickness of Cookies ranged 2.60-4.77 Mm. There was increased in the thickness with increase in malted
soybean inclusion which could be due to the swelling and binding of the cookie components due to water
absorption. This is consistent with the findings of Chinma and Gernah [49], who reported a similar observation
when wheat was substituted with cassava/soybean/mango flour. Djantou et al. [50] reported high sugar content
in MMF, which probably competes for the limited free water due to the presence of hydrophilic sites, thereby
increasing the thickness.
The cookies weight ranged 9.33-11.00 g. Sample F, had the least weight (9.33g), while B; (11.00g) had the
highest. This is in agreement with the reports by Dabel, et al.[51], who recorded lower weight of cookies with
increase in germinated soybean flour addition which could be as a result of higher fat content in the
germinated soybean flour relative to other flours as fat is lighter in weight than water.
The spread ratio of cookies ranged 1.07-1.94. Sample F had the least (1.07) while the highest (1.94) was A.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 446
Cookies with higher values of spread ratio are considered to be more desirable than those with lower values
[5].
Table 6: Physical properties of Cookies from Arrowroot starch enriched with malted Soybean flour
Sample
Width
(Mm)
Thickness
(Mm)
Diameter
(Mm)
Weight (g)
Fragility (g)
Spread
ratio (D/T)
Spread factor
(W/T*10*1)
A
30.27±0.25
c
2.60±0.10
c
5.04±0.04
c
10.00±1.00
b
616.67±28.87
a
1.94±0.08
a
116.54±4.99
a
B
32.20±1.13
a
3.77±0.15
b
5.36±0.18
a
11.00±1.00
a
366.67±28.87
b
1.42±0.03
bc
244.55±359.38
a
C
31.50±0.20
ab
3.80±0.10
b
5.25±0.04
ab
11.00±1.00
a
296.67±5.77
c
1.38±0.51
c
68.51±1.74
a
D
31.00±0.46
bc
4.60±0.10
a
5.15±0.05
bc
9.67±1.53
a
283.33±28.87
c
1.20±0.04
b
82.43±4.62
a
E
30.90±0.53
bc
4.77±0.21
a
5.15±0.09
bc
9.33±1.53
a
290.00±36.06
c
1.07±0.06
b
81.38±3.48
a
Values are means± standard deviations of triplicates. Means in the same column with different superscripts are
significantly (p<0.05) different
Sensory properties of Cookies from Arrowroot starch enriched with malted Soybean flour
Sensory properties are presented in the Table 7. The cookies ranges were; appearance 6.96-7.68, taste 6.44-
8.28, texture 6.64-7.76, aroma 6.56-7.60, crispiness 6.52-7.88 and overall acceptability 6.72-8.28 respectively.
The beautiful golden brown colour observed in the appearance of the cookies samples was due to Maillard
reactions and caramelization of sugars [52]. Taste is an important sensory attribute of any food because of its
influence on acceptability. Increase in addition of malted soybean flour resulted in taste that compared fairly to
wheat cookies (the control). Also, addition of germinated soybeans flour improved the texture of the cookies.
These findings agreet of Akubor and Ukwuru in Elisa el ta. [53].
Table 7: Sensory properties of Cookies from Arrowroot starch enriched with malted Soybean flour
Samples
Appearance
Aroma
Taste
Crispiness
Texture
Overall acceptability
A
7.68
a
±1.14
7.60
a
±0.96
8.28
a
±1.24
7.60
a
±0.9b
7.76
a
±0.83
8.28
a
±0.84
B
7.64
a
±1.18
7.20
ab
±1.20
7.68
a
±0.94
7.88
a
±1.12
7.68
a
±0.94
8.12
a
±0.88
C
7.28
a
±1.21
6.64
b
±1.15
6.80
b
±1.22
6.56
b
±1.32
6.80
bc
±1.22
7.32
bc
±1.34
D
7.12
a
±1.09
7.20
ab
±1.08
6.44
b
±1.91
6.60
b
±1.32
6.64
c
±1.22
7.02
c
±1.10
E
7.23
a
±1.27
6.56
b
±1.00
6.72
b
±1.24
6.52
b
±1.39
6.80
cb
±1.47
7.28
bc
±1.24
F
7.36
a
±1.32
6.76
b
±1.39
7.04
b
±1.24
6.84
b
±1.43
7.36
ab
±1.15
7.64
ab
±1.28
Values are means± standard deviations of 15 determinations. Means in the same column with different
superscripts are significantly (p<0.05) different
CONCLUSION
The study established that acceptable cookies could be produced from Arrowroot starch enriched with malted
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 447
soybean flours. There was an increase in protein, vitamin and mineral content of the Arrowroot starch based
cookies with increasing substitution level of malted soybean flour. The study also showed revealed that
inclusion of malted soybean flour did not alter the consumer acceptability of the cookies especially sample C
(90:10). However, samples E (70: 30) and F (60:40) are recommended as best based on protein recommended
dietary allowance (RDA: 10%-35%). Industrial production of these Cookies from flour blends of Arrowroot
starch and malted soybean flour should be done to increase the utilization of the lesser known Arrowroot tuber,
prevent its extinction and reduce total dependence on wheat flour. It is recommended that further research be
carried out to determine shelf life of the cookies and the appropriate packaging material.
Authors’ Contributions
This work was carried out in collaboration among all authors. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
Disclaimer (Artificial Intelligence)
Author(s) hereby declare that NO generative AI technologies such as Large Language Models (ChatGPT,
COPILOT, etc) and text-to-image generators have been used during writing or editing of manuscripts.
Competing Interests
Authors have declared that no competing interests exist
REFERENCES
1. Ajibola, Comfort Funmilayo, Victoria Olubukola Oyerinde and Olakunle Stephen Adeniyan. 2015.
“Physicochemical and Antioxidant Properties of Whole-Wheat Biscuits Incorporated With Moringa
Oleifera Leaves and Cocoa Powder”. Journal of Scientific Research and Reports 7 (3):195-206.
Doi.org/10.9734/JSRR/2015/18070.
2. Farheena, I., Avanish, K. and Uzma, A. (2015). Development and quality evaluation of cookies
fortified with date paste (Phoenix dactylifera l.). International journal of science and technology 3(4).
3. Uthumporn et al, (2014) U. Uthumporna, W.L. Wooa, A.Y. Tajula and A. Fazilaha (2015). Physico-
chemical and nutritional evaluation of cookies with different levels of eggplant flour substitution CyTA
- Journal of Food. DOI: 10.1080/19476337.2014.942700.
4. Adjei-Nsiah, Samuel, Godwin Asumugha, Emmanuel Njukwe and Malachy Akoroda (2015). The root
and tuber crop farming system Diversity, complexity and productivity
Potential. The root and tuber crop farming system. IITA Bibliography; 182-210.
5. Ahemen, S. A. and Raji, A. O. (2017). Moisture-dependent physical properties of Tacca involucrate
tubers. J Food Process Eng.;e1254 Doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.12541
6. Igbabul, B. D., B. M. Iorliam and E. N. Umana (2015). Physicochemical and sensory properties of
cookies produced from composite of wheat, cocoyam and African yam bean. J. Food Res. 4(2):150-
158.
7. Malki, M.K.S., Wijesinghe, J.A.A.C., Ratnayake, R.H.M.K. and Thilakarathna, G.C. (2023).
Characterization of arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) starch as a potential starch source for the food
industry. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20033
8. Ndouyang, Collinlaw J., Nicolas Y. Njintang, Balaam Facho, Joel Scher and Carl M. F. Mbofung
(2015). Effect of Processing Method on the Antinutrient Content of Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) Kuntze
Flour. British Journal of Applied Science & Technology. BJAST, 5(3): 258-269.
9. Tarique, J., Sapuan, S.M., Khalina, A., Sherwani, S.F.K., Yusuf, J. and Ilyas, R.A. (2021). Recent
developments in sustainable arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea Linn) starch biopolymers, fibres,
biopolymer composites and their potential industrial applications: A review. Journal of materials
research and technology; 13:1191 e1 219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.05.047.
10. Li, Q.F.; Zhou, Y.; Xiong, M.; Ren, X.Y.; Han, L.; Wang, J.D.; Zhang, C.Q.; Fan, X.L. and Liu, Q.Q.
(2020). Gibberellin recovers seed germination in rice with impaired brassinosteroid signalling. Plant
Sci. 293, 110435.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 448
11. Ma, M.; Zhang, H.; Xie, Y.; Yang, M.; Tang, J.;Wang, P.; Yang, R. and Zhenxin, G. (2020). Response
of nutritional and functional composition, anti-nutritional factors and antioxidant activity in germinated
soybean under UV-Bradiation. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 118, 108709.
12. Rahman, M. M., Shahjadee, U. F., Rupa, A. Z. and Hossain, M. N., 2016. Nutritional and
microbiological quality of germinated soy flour. Bangladesh Journal Science Indian Research 51: 167-
74.
13. Chusut Tun, Laksana Charoenchai, Lukman Sueree and Thanaporn Amnuaikit (2018). Properties of
arrowroot starch with traditional extraction. TJPS Vol.42.
14. Ayo Jerome Adekunle, Ayo V.A., Caleb Popoola and Joseph, L. (2014). Production and evaluation of
malted soybean-acha composite flour bread and biscuit. African Journal of Food Science and
Technology. 5(1):21-28. DOI: http:/dx.doi.org/10.14303/ajfst.2014.010
15. Kundam Dorcas Nguemo, Julius K. Ikya and Joseph S. Alakali (2024). Phytochemicals, Antioxidant,
Physico-Chemical and Sensory Properties of Yam-Based Cookies Produced from Flours of Five Yam
Varieties. Asian Food Science Journal.23:8, 22-33.
16. A.O.A.C. (2012). Official Methods of Analysis. 19th edition. Association of Official Analytical
Chemists. Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
17. Sengev, I.A., Gernah, D.I. & Bunde-Tsegba. M.C. (2015). Physical, Chemical and Sensory Properties
of Cookies produced from Sweet potato and Mango mesocarp flours. African Journal of Food,
Agriculture, Nutrition and Development· https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308721500
18. Ngozi J., James E and Helen O. (2021) Functional and Pasting Properties of Composite Flour from
Wheat , Sweet Potato and Soybean.;12.
19. Chandra, S. and Samsher. 2013. Assessment of functional properties of different flours. Afr. J. Agric.
Res. 8(38):4849–4852.
20. Ohizua ER, Adeola AA, Idowu MA, Sobukola OP, Afolabi TA, Ishola RO, Ayansina SO, Oyekale TO
and Falomo A. (2017) Nutrient composition, functional, and pasting properties of unripe cooking
banana, pigeon pea, and sweet potato flour blends. Food Science and Nutrition.;5(3):750–762.
21. Awolu OO, Oyebanji OV and Sodipo MA. (2017) Optimization of proximate composition and
functional properties of composite flours consisting wheat, cocoyam (Colocasia esculenta) and
bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea). International Food Research Journal.;24(1): 268–274.
22. Adeola AA, Shittu TA, Onabanjo OO, Oladunmoye OO, and Abass A. (2017) Evaluation of nutrient
composition , functional and sensory attributes of sorghum , pigeonpea and soybean flour blends as
complementary food in Nigeria. Agronomie Africaine Sp. ;29(2):47–58.
23. Gashaw Abebaw Tsegaye and Solomon Duguma (2020). The Effect of Blending Ratio and Cooking
Temperature on the Quality of Weaning Foods Preparation from Bulla, Chickpea and Banana Flour.
Science Research. 8(2): 45-51. http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/sr. doi: 10.11648/ j.sr. 2020
0802.13
24. Chandra S, Singh S, Kumari D. (2015) Evaluation of functional properties of composite flours and
sensorial attributes of composite flour biscuits. Food Sci Technol.;52(6): 3681–3688.
25. Elochukwu, Chinwe.U.1, Nwosu, Justina N., Owuamanam C. I and Osuji, C.I.(2019). Proximate,
Functional and Pasting Properties of Composite Flours Made from Cassava, Bambara Groundnut and
Cashew Kernel. International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation (IJRSI) | Volume VI, Issue
XI,
26. Awuchi, Chinaza Godswill, Igwe, Victory Somtochukwu and Echet, Chinelo Kate (2019). The
Functional Properties of Foods and Flours. International Journal of Advanced Academic Research |
Sciences, Technology and Engineering;Vol.5, Issue 11.
27. Malomo Olu , Ogunmoyela O. A. B., Adekoyeni O. O., Jimoh O., Oluwajoba S.O , Sobanwa M. O.
(2012). Rheological and Functional Properties of Soy-Poundo Yam Flour. International Journal of
Food Science and Nutrition Engineering, 2(6): 101-107. DOI: 10.5923/j.food.20120206.01
28. Olaitan NI, Eke M.O and Agudu S.S. (2017). Effect of watermelon (Citrullus lantus) rind flour
supplementation on the quality of wheat based cookies. International Journal of Engineering and
Science; 6(12):38–44.
29. Adebayo-Oyetoro AO, Olatidoye OP, Ogundipe O.O. and Abayomi H.T. (2013) Nutrient composition,
functional and organoleptic properties of complementary food formulated from sorghum, walnut and
ginger. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology; 9(2):321–333.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 449
30. Elleuch M, Bedigian D, Roiseux O, Besbes S, Blecker C and Attia H. (2011). Dietary fibre and fibre-
rich by-products of food processing: Characterisation, technological functionality and commercial
applications: Rev. Food Chem., 124: 411-421.
31. Ikuomola D.S., Otutu O.L., and Oluniran D.D. (2017). Quality assessment of cookies produced from
wheat flour and malted barley (Hordeum vulgare) bran blends, Journal of Cogent Food and
Agriculture, 3: 1293471.
32. Ufot E.I, Comfort F.E., and Anne P. E. (2018). Physical Properties, Nutritional Composition and
Sensory Evaluation of Cookies Prepared from Rice, Unripe Banana and Sprouted Soybean Flour.
Blends International Journal of Food Science and Biotechnology. Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 70-76.
33. FAO. (2010). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Faostat: Crops.
34. Jaja, T., and Yarhere, I. E. (2015). Risk factors for Type 2 diabetes mellitus in adolescents secondary
school students in Port Harcourt. Nigeria. Nig. Pediatric J., 42, 131–137.
35. Atobatele, O.B. and Afolabi, M.O. (2016). Chemical Composition and Sensory Evaluation of Cookies
Baked from the Blends from the Blends of Soya Bean and Maize Flours. Journal of Applied Tropical
Agriculture: Volume 21, No.2, 8-13.
36. FAO (2003). Food energy – methods of analysis and conversion factors. SSN 0254-4725
37. Andualem, A., Kebede, A. and Abadi, G. M. (2016). Development of Pro-vitamin A and Energy Rich
Biscuits: Blending of Orange-fleshed Sweet Potato (Ipomea batatas L.) with Wheat (Triticum vulgare)
Flour and Altering Baking Temperature and Time. African Journal of Food Science, 10(6): 79-86.
38. Chidinma, W. A., Jiddari, W. U. and Hassan, S. C. (2010). A Student Handbook on Food and
Nutrition. 1
st
edition, Kaduna, De-New Creation Prints Ltd Publishers. 222pp.
39. Twum, L. A., Okyere, A. A., Asare, I. K., Kottoh, I. D., Duah-Bisiw, D., Torgby-Tetteh, W. and Ayeh,
E. A. (2015). Physicochemical and Functional Quality of Tigernut Tubers (Cyperus esculentus)
Composite Flour. British Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 11(3): 1-9.
40. Seidu, K. T., Osundahunsi, O. F., Olaleye, M. T. and Oluwalana, I. B. (2014).Chemical Composition,
Phytochemical Constituents and Antioxidant Potentials of Lima Bean Seeds Coat. Annals Food
Science and Technology, 15(2): 288-298.
41. Fiorentini Diana, Concettina Cappadone, Giovanna Farruggia and Cecilia Prata (2021). Magnesium:
Biochemistry, Nutrition, Detection, and Social-Impact of Diseases Linked to Its Deficiency. Nutrients
2021, 13, 1136. Doi.org/10.3390/nu13041136
42. Powell, S. R. (2000). Zinc and Health: Current Status and Future Directions. Journal of Nutrition, 130:
1447-1454.
43. Abbaspour, N., Hurrell, R. and Kelishadi, R. (2014). Review on Iron and its Importance for Human
Health. Journal of Research in Medical Sciences, 19(2): 164-174.
44. Soetan K. O., C. O. Olaiya and O. E. Oyewole (2010). The importance of mineral elements for humans,
domestic animals and plants: A review. African Journal of Food Science Vol. 4(5):200-222,
45. Logue. D (2012). 1,001 Heart Healthy Recipes: Quick, Delicious Recipes High in Fiber and Low in
Sodium and Cholesterol That Keep You Committed to Your Healthy Lifestyle. Fair Winds Press. pp.
218.
46. Mirwais Ghani, Krishnanand Kulkarni, Jong Tae Song (2016) Soybean Sprouts: A Review of Nutrient
Composition, Health Benefits and Genetic Variation. Plant Breeding and Biotechnology 4(4):398-412.
DOI: 10.9787/PBB.2016.4.4.398
47. Aguilera, Y.; Herrera, T.; Liébana, R.; Rebollo-Hernanz, M.; Sanchez-Puelles, C.; Martín-Cabrejas,
M.A. (2015). Impact of melatonin enrichment during germination of legumes on bioactive compounds
and antioxidant activity. J. Agric. Food Chem. 63, 7967–7974.
48. Okpala, L., Okoli, E. and Udensi, E. (2013) Physico-chemical and sensory properties of cookies made
from blends of germinated pigeon pea, fermented sorghum and cocoyam flours. Journal of Food
Science and Nutrition. 1: 8-14.
49. Chinma CE and DI Gernah Physical and sensory properties of cookies produced from cassava/
soybean/mango composite flours. J. Food Tech. 2007; 5(3): 256 – 260.
50. Djantou EB, Mbofung CMF, Scher J, Phambu N and J D Morael (2011). Alternation drying and
grinding (ADG) technique: A novel approach for producing ripe mango powder. LWT - Food Sci.
Tech.; 44: 1585 – 1590.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 450
51. Dabels N., Igbabul B.D., Amove J and Iorliam B. (2016) Nutritional Composition, Physical and
Sensory Properties of Cookies from Wheat, Acha and Mung Bean Composite Flours. International
Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences. Vol. 5, No. 6: 401-06.
52. Nahid Tamanna and Niaz Mahmood (2015). Food Processing and Maillard Reaction Products:Effect
on Human Health and Nutrition. International Journal of Food Science. Vol. 6. Doi.org/ 10.1155/ 2015/
526762
53. Elisa Julianti, Herla Rusmarilin, Ridwansyah and Era Yusraini (2017). Functional and rheological
properties of composite flour from sweet potato, maize, soybean and xanthan gum. Journal of the Saudi
Society of Agricultural Sciences. Vol.16, 2:171-177