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The Obscure Fungi of Peppara: An Ethnomycological Exploration
and Conservation Implications
Meenu R. Mridula
*
, Suju Skaria
Department of Botany, Mar Ivanios College (Autonomous), Thiruvananthapuram – 695015
*
Corresponding Author
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.51584/IJRIAS.2025.101100031
Received: 25 November 2025; Accepted: 01 December 2025; Published: 08 December 2025
ABSTRACT
Ethnomycology, a specialized branch of ethnobotany, explores the dynamic relationships between humans and
fungi, with particular emphasis on their roles in traditional and alternative medicine, food, rituals, and
ecological stewardship. Among indigenous communities, fungi have long held a place not only as a food
source but also as potent agents in folk healing systems, natural therapies, and preventive care. Despite their
cultural and medicinal importance, these knowledge systems remain under-documented and increasingly
vulnerable to erosion due to modernization, loss of oral traditions, and habitat degradation. This study
investigates the ethnomycological practices of the Kani settlement at Chemmankala in the Peppara Forest
Range of Kerala, with a focus on fungal diversity, classification, and utilization. Field surveys and semi-
structured interviews were conducted with local informants to document fungal species, collection methods,
preparation techniques, and perceived therapeutic and nutritional benefits. Particular attention was paid to
fungi traditionally used in healing practices, wound care, immunity boosting, and dietary regulation.
Specimens were collected and identified through both morphological and microscopic analyses, and their
ethnomedical applications cross-referenced with existing scientific literature and pharmacological databases.
The findings reveal a rich tapestry of culinary, medicinal, and ecological uses of fungi among the Kani people
and underscore deeply rooted traditional conservation ethics that promote sustainable harvesting and habitat
care. This study not only contributes to the ethnomycological literature but also reinforces the urgent need to
preserve indigenous medical knowledge systems, support biocultural diversity, and promote the integration of
traditional health wisdom into broader frameworks of alternative medicine and holistic health.
Keywords: Ethnomycology, Kani tribe, macrofungi, traditional knowledge, Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary
INTRODUCTION
Ethnomycology provides valuable insights into fungal diversity, sustainable harvesting practices, and potential
biotechnological applications [1] . As a sub-discipline of ethnobotany, it explores the intricate cultural,
medicinal, ecological, and nutritional relationships between humans and fungi, many of which are deeply
embedded in indigenous traditions [2]. Despite the vital role fungi play in forest ecosystems and traditional
medicine, much of the local knowledge surrounding them remains undocumented, especially in the Global
South [3]. As modernization, environmental degradation, and cultural assimilation continue to impact
indigenous communities, such ethnomycological knowledge faces the risk of being lost [4]. The Kani tribe,
indigenous to the Western Ghats, is one such community whose traditional knowledge of fungi is both rich and
fragile [5] . Primarily inhabiting the forests of Thiruvananthapuram district in Kerala and parts of Tamil
Nadu—specifically Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari districts—the Kani people represent a small demographic,
with an estimated population of 16,181 individuals in Kerala, amounting to only 0.046% of the state's total
population [6]. This minimal representation makes their ecological knowledge highly susceptible to loss, as the
disappearance of even a few elders could lead to irreversible gaps in oral traditions. Traditionally a nomadic
community, the Kani have adapted to settled life while retaining close ties with the forest. Their livelihoods
include seasonal collection of forest produce, handicrafts, and cultivation of crops such as tapioca, banana,
millets, pepper, coconut, rubber, arecanut, and cashew nut [7] . In earlier times, their social structure was led
by a tribal chief known as the Moottukani, but this traditional leadership model has largely diminished under
the influence of modernization [8] . As younger generations increasingly move away from traditional practices,
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue XI November 2025
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the accumulated knowledge on fungi, medicinal plants, and sustainable harvesting methods is at significant
risk of erosion [9]. Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, part of the Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve—a globally
recognized biodiversity hotspot—serves as the ecological backdrop for this study [10]. Spanning an area of 53
sq. km, the sanctuary includes diverse habitats such as tropical evergreen forests, riparian zones, Myristica
swamp forests, and grasslands, all of which offer a favorable environment for fungal growth and diversity [11].
It is administratively divided into core, buffer, and tourism zones, with all 13 tribal settlements, including
Chemmankala, located in the buffer zone. Chemmankala, comprising around 15 Kani families, was established
as a resettlement colony following the construction of the Peppara Dam in 1983 [6].
Within this richly biodiverse and culturally layered landscape, the Kani community at Chemmankala continues
to practice traditional fungal harvesting and usage. Their ethnomycological knowledge—transmitted orally
across generations—includes species identification, sustainable collection techniques, preparation methods,
and applications in health and nutrition [5]. However, the combined pressures of environmental change,
cultural transition, and population dispersal pose a significant threat to the survival of this knowledge. This
study, therefore, seeks to document and safeguard the ethnomycological traditions of the Kani people. By
aligning indigenous perspectives with ecological and conservation research, it contributes to a broader
understanding of human-fungal relationships and reinforces the value of traditional knowledge in sustainable
forest management and biodiversity conservation [12]
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study was conducted in Chemmankala (GPS readings N08°39′35.9″ E077°09′34.1″) Fig. 1,.
Fig. 1 Map showing the settlement in Thodayar section of Peppara Forest range
A tribal settlement in the Thodayar section of the Peppara Forest Range, selected for its rich biodiversity and
the presence of an indigenous community of 15 families facing the risk of displacement due to modernization
[6]. Field surveys were carried out in November, during the Thulaam–Vrischikam period of the Malayalam
calendar, which corresponds with favorable post-monsoon conditions ideal for wild mushroom emergence
[13]. Multiple field visits were undertaken, and data were collected through semi-structured interviews and
participatory observation, with the support of key local informants such as Biju and Mohanan Kani.
Information documented included vernacular names, collection and preparation methods, and the nutritional,
medicinal, and cultural significance of wild fungi within the community . Mushrooms were photographed in
situ to document natural morphology and habitat [1] . Specimens were carefully harvested, tagged, and
transported in polythene bags to the laboratory. Macroscopic features such as cap structure, gill attachment,
color changes, and substrate association were recorded in detail [14]. Specimens were oven-dried at 45°C and
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stored with silica gel to preserve their structure for microscopic analyses [15]. Detailed morphological
examination was conducted under the guidance and supervision of Dr. Lulu Das, Professor of Plant Pathology
and Principal Investigator of the AICRP on Mushrooms at Kerala Agricultural University. Microscopic
examination involved preparing free-hand sections of dried material (lamellae, pileal context, partial veil) and
observation under an Olympus Microsystems at 100x magnification [16]. Features measured included spore,
basidia, cystidia, and presence or absence of clamp connections. Identification was supported by comparisons
with standard mycological references [17].
RESULTS
The collection includes both basidiomycetes and ascomycetes, with representatives found on decaying wood,
termite mounds, and even herbivore dung, highlighting the ecological diversity of macrofungi associated with
the Kani tribal region. Each species not only contributes to forest nutrient cycling but also holds cultural
significance through traditional ethnomycological uses. Features such as basidiospore shape, size, color, and
ornamentation were observed using compound microscopy, along with the presence or absence of clamp
connections, cystidia, and hyphal types (monomitic, dimitic, or trimitic). A total of eight macrofungal species
were identified in this study, encompassing a diverse range of morpho-anatomical and ecological traits. These
species belong to five fungal orders: Polyporales (Abortiporus biennis, Microporus xanthopus), Agaricales
(Psilocybe coprophila, Schizophyllum commune, Termitomyces microcarpus), Hymenochaetales (Phellinus
rimosus), Xylariales (Daldinia concentrica), and Auriculariales (Auricularia auricula) (Table 1. Fig. 2.)
Table 1: Taxonomic classification of macrofungal species documented from the Kani tribal region.
Scientific Name
Phylum
Class
Order
Genus
Psilocybe coprophila
Basidiomycota
Agaricomycetes
Agaricales
Psilocybe
Schizophyllum commune
Basidiomycota
Agaricomycetes
Agaricales
Schizophyllum
Termitomyces microcarpus
Basidiomycota
Agaricomycetes
Agaricales
Termitomyces
Auricularia auricula
Basidiomycota
Agaricomycetes
Auriculariales
Auricularia
Phellinus rimosus
Basidiomycota
Agaricomycetes
Hymenochaetales
Phellinus
Abortiporus biennis
Basidiomycota
Agaricomycetes
Polyporales
Abortiporus
Microporus xanthopus
Basidiomycota
Agaricomycetes
Polyporales
Microporus
Daldinia concentrica
Ascomycota
Sordariomycetes
Xylariales
Daldinia
Figure 2: Macrofungi identified in the study 1. Psilocybe coprophila 2. Schizophyllum commune 3.
Termitomyces microcarpus 4. Auricularia auricula 5. Phellinus rimosus 6. Abortiporus biennis 7. Microporus
xanthopus 8. Daldinia concentrica
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Schizophyllum commune exhibited characteristic split gill lamellae with hyaline, curved basidiospores, while
Microporus xanthopus showed trimitic hyphal systems with thick-walled skeletal hyphae. Auricularia auricula
was distinguished by its gelatinous basidiomata, long cylindrical basidia, and allantoid spores. The
identification of Daldinia concentrica was supported by the presence of carbonaceous stromata and dark,
ellipsoid ascospores with a distinct germ slit (Table 2).
Table 2: Diagnostic characters and microscopic features of macrofungal species recorded in the study.
Species
Identifying
Characters
Spore Profile & Microscopy
Phellinus
rimosus
Woody perennial
basidiocarp with
cracked, zonate, dark
brown surface. Found
on hardwoods.
Spores: Ellipsoid to subglobose, 4–6 × 3–4 µm, brown, thick-
walled.
Basidia: Not prominent; often replaced by basidioles.
Cystidia: Absent.
Clamp: Present.
Daldinia
concentrica
Globose stromata,
black outer surface,
internal concentric
rings.
Spores: Ellipsoid to fusiform, 12–18 × 6–8 µm, smooth, dark
brown, with straight germ slit.
Basidia: Not applicable (ascomycete).
Asci: 8-spored.
Clamp: Absent.
Abortiporus
biennis
Irregular, polyporoid,
pinkish to tan cap,
pores labyrinthine or
radial.
Spores: Ellipsoid, 4.74–5.54 × 2.74–3.40 µm.
Basidia: Clavate, 4-spored, ~25 × 7 µm.
Cystidia: Rare, fusoid to ventricose.
Clamp: Present.
Psilocybe
coprophila
Small brown cap, on
dung; hygrophanous,
lacks veil.
Spores: Ellipsoid, 11–14 × 7–8 µm, dark purplish-brown, germ
pore present.
Basidia: 4-spored, clavate, ~20 × 8 µm.
Cystidia: Cheilocystidia lageniform.
Clamp: Present.
Schizophyllum
commune
Fan-shaped, whitish-
grey, split gills
(schizohymenium).
Spores: Cylindric to curved, 4–6.5 × 1.5–2 µm, hyaline,
inamyloid.
Basidia: 4-spored, curved.
Cystidia: Absent.
Clamp: Present.
Auricularia
auricula
Ear-like, gelatinous
basidiocarps, rubbery,
translucent brown.
Spores: Allantoid, 15–22 × 5–7 µm.
Basidia: Long, tubular, 65–85 × 4–5.5 µm, transversely septate.
Cystidia: Absent.
Clamp: Present.
Termitomyces
microcarpus
Greyish-brown
umbonate pileus;
white free gills; long
pseudorrhiza;
associated with
termites.
Spores: Ellipsoid to ovoid, (6.5-)6.5–8.4 × (4.1-)4.1–5.4 µm; Q =
1.32–1.82, smooth, hyaline, thin-walled.
Basidia: Clavate, 4-spored, 19–22 × 7–9 µm.
Cystidia: Few, clavate to pedunculate.
Clamp: Absent.
Microporus
xanthopus
Zonate cap, bright
yellow stipe base,
leathery texture,
central stipe.
Spores: Ellipsoid, 3.5–4 × 2–2.5 µm.
Basidia: Narrowly clavate, 4-spored.
Cystidia: Absent.
Clamp: Present.
Psilocybe coprophila, commonly known as the dung-loving Psilocybe, is a small brown mushroom that grows
exclusively on herbivore dung, including that of wild elephants. It has a convex, smooth cap that darkens as it
matures. The gills are attached, becoming darker with spore maturation. The fungus aids in dung
decomposition, enriching the soil. The Kani community uses Psilocybe coprophila as an ingredient in the
preparation of traditional hair oil. Schizophyllum commune, known as the split gill fungus, is widely distributed
and grows on deadwood. It has small, fan-shaped fruiting bodies with a white to grayish fuzzy surface. Its
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defining feature is the split gills, which allow it to survive desiccation. Although not widely consumed,
members of the Kani tribe roast and eat Schizophyllum commune when other food resources are scarce.
Termitomyces microcarpus is a fragile mushroom that forms tight clusters, with immature fruiting bodies
resembling grains of rice, hence its local name "Ari Kumil" (Rice Mushroom). It grows in association with
termite mounds. This is an edible species highly valued by the Kani community for its taste and nutritional
benefits. Auricularia auricula is commonly known as the wood ear mushroom. It has a moist, brown, ear-
shaped fruiting body and grows on decaying wood. It is gelatinous and flexible, with a rubbery texture. This
fungus is used as food by members of the Kani community. It is carefully wrapped in Ochlandra leaves,
seasoned with salt, and roasted over embers before consumption. Phellinus rimosus is a wood-decay fungus
that causes white rot in hardwood trees, primarily found on the trunks of older jackfruit trees (Artocarpus
heterophyllus, Family Moraceae). The fruiting body (basidiocarp) is perennial, hoof-shaped, and yellowish-
brown, darkening and developing cracks with age. The pore surface is brown, with small, round pores. This
fungus plays a crucial role in decomposing dead wood and recycling nutrients in forest ecosystems. The Kani
community uses it as a medicinal treatment for mumps. The matured basidiocarp is detached, ground into a
fine paste with water, and applied over the chin and cheeks. The community reports significant relief from this
remedy. Abortiporus biennis is a saprobic fungus commonly found on deadwood and tree stumps. It has two
distinct forms: a typical polypore with a brown cap and white pore surface that bruises reddish-brown, and an
irregular, deformed form consisting of a mass of white pores exuding a reddish juice. The flesh is tough, and
when squeezed, it releases pinkish juice. The dried basidiocarps of Abortiporus biennis are used by the Kani
community as incense to repel mosquitoes. The basidiocarp of Microporus xanthopus is stipitate, typically
small to medium-sized, with a fan-shaped to semicircular cap measuring 3–8 cm in width. The upper surface
of the cap is zonate, displaying concentric bands in shades of brown, reddish-brown, or ochre, with a velvety to
finely tomentose texture. The most distinguishing feature is its bright yellow to orange-yellow stipe, which is
centrally or eccentrically attached and often solid. The pore surface on the underside is white to cream-colored,
turning slightly brownish with age or bruising. The pores are small, round to angular, typically 5–7 per mm.
Daldinia concentrica produces hard, rounded black fruiting bodies resembling lumps of coal. When sliced
open, it reveals concentric rings of gray and black, marking seasonal growth. It grows on decaying tree trunks,
particularly in deciduous forests. The fruiting body has a firm texture and is capable of smoldering slowly,
making it useful as natural tinder for fire-starting. Members of the Kani tribe use it to treat burns. The fungus is
placed on affected areas to provide a cooling effect and alleviate discomfort.
DISCUSSION
Tribal societies across the world depend extensively on forest ecosystems for sustenance, health, and culture
[18]. India, with its expansive forest cover and one of the largest tribal populations globally—comprising
nearly 8% of the country's total population—hosts an extraordinary wealth of ethnobotanical knowledge
[19,20]. The potential for ethnobotanical and ethnomycological research in India is vast, enriched by fieldwork
in diverse ecological zones. Pioneering contributions to Indian ethnobotanical research include the works of
Jain in Madhya Pradesh [21, 22, 23] , Goel et al. in Bihar [24] , Gupta in Himachal Pradesh [25], and Ayyanar
& Ignacimuthu in Tamil Nadu [26]. In Kerala, serious documentation began with Manilal’s seminal work [27],
which recorded 26 primitive rice varieties used by tribal groups in the Malabar region. The discovery of
Trichopus zeylanicus—a plant revered by the Kani tribe for its rejuvenating properties—and its subsequent
study by Pushpangadan et al. [5] highlighted the pharmacological promise of tribal knowledge systems.
Within this ethnobotanical context, wild mushrooms represent a unique intersection of food, medicine, and
cultural practice. In a landmark study, seven ethnomycologically significant mushroom species belonging to
the Division Basidiomycota were identified: three with medicinal uses, three as food sources, and one
employed as incense for mosquito repulsion [28, 17]. Of particular note is Phellinus rimosus, traditionally used
to treat mumps—a use first documented by Ganeshlg [29], who noted that “the basidiocarp of this mushroom
has been reported to be used by some tribes in Kerala (India) for curing mumps.” Modern scientific studies
have since validated several bioactivities of P. rimosus, including its hepatoprotective [30], antioxidant [31],
antitumor [32], and antimicrobial [33] properties.
Another notable species is Daldinia concentrica, which contains squalene—a compound widely used in
cosmetic formulations for its rapid skin absorption and compatibility with vitamins and other oils [34]. Known
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locally as Thee Kumil, it is traditionally applied to burns by the Kani tribe for its soothing, cooling effect. The
presence of bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, tannins, and alkaloids, known for their roles in wound
healing, lends scientific credibility to this indigenous practice [35].
Recent ethnomycological fieldwork conducted among a small Kani community of just 15 families in
Chemmankala has revealed a range of novel and lesser-known fungal uses. These findings not only affirm the
sophistication of local ecological knowledge but also expand the current scientific understanding of these
species. Phellinus rimosus continues to be topically applied as a paste for mumps, while Abortiporus biennis,
locally known as Kuchi Kumil, is burned as incense to repel mosquitoes—pointing to a promising area for
further research on the role of fungal volatiles as natural insect repellents [36].
One particularly striking observation was the use of Psilocybe coprophila in hair oil preparations. While the
genus Psilocybe is better known for its psychotropic compounds [37], its role in traditional hair care regimes is
hitherto undocumented and represents a novel contribution to ethnomycological literature. Similarly, the
inclusion of Schizophyllum commune in the diet—roasted and consumed despite its tough, leathery texture—
challenges prevailing assumptions about its edibility. Given its known immunomodulatory and nutritional
potential [38], the consumption practice suggests refined local knowledge regarding preparation techniques
that enhance both palatability and health benefits.
Other species such as Auricularia auricula, known locally as Chaevi Kumil, are roasted before consumption—
a practice consistent with its high polysaccharide content and value as a functional food [39]. Termitomyces
microcarpus, a prized edible mushroom in many indigenous food systems, also features prominently in the
community’s diet. This aligns with ethnomedicinal reports of its antimicrobial and immune-boosting properties
from other tribal contexts [40].
The clear resonance between traditional Kani ecological knowledge and modern scientific insights underlines
the complexity and value of indigenous knowledge systems. However, this reservoir of biocultural heritage
faces growing threats from deforestation, urbanization, and shifting socio-economic priorities. With younger
generations displaying limited interest in ancestral practices, the continuity of such knowledge is at risk.
Thus, there is an urgent need to document, validate, and ethically integrate indigenous knowledge into modern
science—not merely for cultural preservation, but also for unlocking new avenues in pharmacology, food
science, and sustainable development. The ethnomycological discoveries from this microcommunity
underscore the depth of India’s tribal knowledge base. The novel applications of fungi in hair care, along with
unique dietary inclusions such as Schizophyllum commune, illustrate the untapped potential that lies in focused,
community-specific fieldwork. Future studies should include multi-seasonal surveys (pre-monsoon, monsoon,
post-monsoon, and dry periods) to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the fungal diversity
utilized by the Kani community.Additionally, phytochemical screening, antimicrobial assays, antioxidant
evaluations, and bioactive compound profiling will help scientifically validate the traditional medicinal uses of
the recorded fungal species.
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