INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue XI November 2025  
Urbanisation as a Factor of Flooding in Developing Countries:  
Experience from Makurdi, Nigeria  
TOM Edward Terkimbi., ALACI, Davidson Sunday A., Bashir-Mohammed, Shamsiyya  
1Department of Development Control, Federal Capital Territory Administration (FCTA), Abuja  
2&3Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Jos, Nigeria  
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.51584/IJRIAS.2025.101100050  
Received: 02 November 2025; Accepted: 10 November 2025; Published: 10 December 2025  
ABSTRACT  
Rapid urban expansion in Makurdi has significantly altered land use patterns, increasing flood vulnerability and  
exacerbating environmental, economic, and social risks. This study examines urbanisation as a factor of flooding  
by analyzing land cover changes, and the encroachment of built environments into flood-prone zones within the  
frame of demographic trend. A mixed-methods approach was employed in data collection. This involved spatial  
analysis and survey-based assessments to provide a multidimensional perspective on urbanization-driven flood  
risk. Findings indicate that unregulated urban sprawl, deforestation, impervious surface expansion, and  
inadequate drainage infrastructure are key contributors to increasing flood frequency and severity. Poor  
enforcement of zoning laws, ineffective land use planning, and socio-economic disparities further exacerbate the  
problem, leaving vulnerable communities disproportionately affected. Additionally, climate change-induced  
variations in rainfall patterns intensify flood hazards, highlighting the need for proactive risk management  
strategies. To mitigate these risks, this study recommends a multi-pronged approach, including enforcing  
stringent zoning and land-use policies, investing in flood-resilient infrastructure, and adopting nature-based  
solutions such as wetland restoration and sustainable drainage systems. Furthermore, strengthening early  
warning systems, enhancing community awareness, and integrating flood resilience measures into urban  
planning frameworks are critical for sustainable urban development. By adopting an integrated and science-  
driven approach, policymakers and urban planners can improve adaptive capacity, minimize flood-related losses,  
and ensure long-term resilience in the Benue.  
Keywords: Urbanisation, Land Cover, Encroachment, Flooding and Makurdi.  
INTRODUCTION  
Rapid expansion of urban areas, driven by population growth and increasing demand for residential and  
commercial spaces, has significantly altered land use patterns, often at the expense of natural flood buffers such  
as wetlands and river floodplains (Douglas et al., 2008; IPCC, 2022). The rapid and often unregulated expansion  
of built environments has led to widespread encroachment into ecologically sensitive areas, including wetlands  
and floodplains, reducing the landscape’s natural capacity to absorb excess water during heavy rainfall. As noted  
in literature, the consequences of unregulated sprawl include increased impervious surfaces, higher surface  
runoff, and overwhelmed drainage infrastructure, which collectively contribute to more frequent and severe  
flooding events (Shabu 2021; Odufuwa et al. 2024). There appears to be absence of strict zoning regulations and  
the attendant enforcement mechanisms which perhaps has allowed settlements like Makurdi to expand into high-  
risk flood zones, increasing both human and economic exposure to flood disasters.  
The conversion of plains and wetlands into built-up areas, reducing the capacity the land to absorb rainfall have  
been blamed on rapid urbanization and poor planning (Adeoye et al., 2009). According to Adelekan, (2016) Poor  
planning, inadequate drainage, and encroachment on waterways have worsened the vulnerability of riparian  
cities to flooding. Climate change has further exacerbate extreme weather events, overwhelming outdated or  
poorly maintained drainage systems (IPCC, 2022; Ajibade et al., 2020). The combined effects of climate change,  
extreme weather events, and population-driven urbanization demand urgent, sustainable planning and resilient  
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ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue XI November 2025  
infrastructure development to mitigate future flood hazards (Adeoye et al., 2009; Adelekan, 2016; Nkwunonwo  
et al., 2020; IPCC, 2022; Ajibade et al., 2020; UN-Habitat, 2021).  
Many urban areas suffer from lack of adequate drainage infrastructure, drainage channels are often undersized,  
blocked by waste, or poorly designed for increasing rainfall (Adelekan, 2016). This disrupts water flow, reduces  
infiltration, and increases runoff, elevating flood hazards (Douglas et al., 2008). Wetlands naturally absorb  
rainfall and mitigate weather events (IPCC, 2022), but urbanization has led to deforestation, soil compaction,  
and impervious surfaces, reducing ecosystem functions (Nkwunonwo et al., 2020). Loss of wetlands increases  
peak flood discharges and duration during rainfall (Ajibade et al., 2020) and leads to environmental degradation,  
biodiversity loss, water pollution, and climate disruption (UN-Habitat, 2021).  
As cities expand into ecologically sensitive areas like floodplains, the ability to absorb rainfall decreases, and  
inadequate infrastructure heightens vulnerability (Douglas et al., 2008; Aderogba, 2012). Impervious urban  
surfaces reduce groundwater recharge and increase runoff, often causing flash floods in the absence of  
sustainable drainage (Adelekan, 2010; Abaje et al., 2018). These risks are worsened by the lack of integrated  
land-use and flood risk policies. Marginalized populations in informal settlements near rivers are  
disproportionately affected and excluded from planning processes, increasing their vulnerability (Ajibade et al.,  
2013). Scholars call for climate-resilient urban planning that integrates environmental, hydrological, and social  
data, which is crucial for fragile systems like those in Benue (Douglas et al., 2008; Adelekan, 2012).This study  
examines urbanisation as a factor of flooding in developing countries within the framework of, the role of urban  
expansion in exacerbating flood risks, analyzing spatial growth patterns and their impact on flood vulnerability  
through an integrated approach combining geospatial analysis and hydrological assessment. Nigeria has also  
witnessed increasingly frequent and severe urban flood disasters in recent years, largely due to unchecked urban  
growth and inadequate flood management (Jinadu, 2015; Aliyu & Suleiman, 2016).  
METHODOLOGY  
This study employed a mixed-methods research design combining descriptive and analytical approaches to  
understand patterns of urban expansion and flood vulnerability in Makurdi. The descriptive approach  
documented land use changes, population trends, and flood events, while the analytical approach interpreted  
spatial data and survey responses. The study used spatial data of (1976–2016), and socio-economic information.  
Structured questionnaire captured household flood experiences, housing conditions, and coping strategies. In the  
absence of hydrological tools, long-term residents (20+ years) provided perception-based indicators on flood  
frequency and water levels. Using Israel’s (1992) formula, a sample of 400 households was drawn from an  
estimated 61,784 households (2016 population estimate). A multi-stage sampling method was applied -  
Stratification into high, moderate, and potential flood-risk zones. Purposive selection of two communities per  
zone. Random selection of households (≈66 per community). Communities included Wadata, Wurukum, Idye,  
Ankpa Ward, Agan, and Modern Market.  
RESULT AND DISCUSSION  
The data collected speaks to critical issues necessary for understanding the urbanisation factor of flooding in  
Makurdi, the capital of Benue state, Nigeria. The discussion is anchored on the objectives of the study which  
basically situates in the realm of urban spatial expansion, population growth and the emerging spatial pattern of  
vulnerability in the city.  
Urban Expansion and the Spatial Pattern of Flood Vulnerability in Makurdi  
Urban expansion in Makurdi has been driven primarily by rapid population growth and extensive horizontal  
development. As in many urban centres across Sub-Saharan Africa, this growth has translated into the physical  
expansion of built-up areas, often at the expense of vegetation and natural drainage systems. The data presented  
in this study show a strong correlation between population increase and spatial growth, both of which have  
contributed to the city’s heightened exposure to flooding.  
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ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue XI November 2025  
Table 1: Population versus Built-Up Area of Makurdi (1976–2016)  
Year  
1976  
1986  
1996  
2006  
2016  
Population  
85,993  
%Average Growth Rate  
Built-Up Area (Km²)  
Growth Rate (%)  
-
12.96  
29.17  
40.79  
69.74  
105.96  
-
123,916  
178,563  
257,309  
370,702  
4.4  
4.4  
4.4  
4.4  
5.5  
2.8  
7.09  
5.19  
Source: Researchers computation 2023 derived from NPC (2006); Landsat Data (2020).  
Information on table 1 shows that the population of Makurdi increased from 85,993 in 1976 to 370,702 in 2016,  
maintaining an annual growth rate of about 4.4%. Correspondingly, the city’s built-up area expanded from 12.96  
km² to 105.96 km² within the same period — a remarkable 717% increase over four decades. This expansion  
reflects both natural population growth and significant in-migration following Makurdi’s designation as the  
Benue State capital in 1976, which attracted civil servants, traders, and investors from across Nigeria.  
Table 2: Land Use and Land Cover Area of Makurdi (1976–2016) in (KM2)  
Landuse/cover 1976  
%
1986  
25.15  
29.17  
%
1996  
26.59  
40.79  
%
2006  
35.98  
69.74  
%
2016  
%
Water  
21.98  
12.96  
2.27  
1.34  
2.60  
3.02  
2.75  
4.22  
3.73  
7.22  
36.99  
3.83  
Built-up  
Vegetation  
Bare Surface  
Total  
105.96 10.98  
782.69 81.14 769.42 79.76 761.32 78.92 718.56 74.49 664.68 68.90  
146.98 15.23 140.87 14.60 135.91 14.08 139.98 14.51 156.98 16.27  
964.61 100  
964.61 100  
964.61 100  
964.61 100  
964.61 100  
Source: Landsat Data (2020); Researcher’s Work (2023)  
Spatial Dynamics of Urban Growth  
The analysis in Table 2 shows a consistent decline in vegetation cover and a corresponding increase in built-up  
area from 1976 to 2016. The built-up area rose from 1.34% to 10.98%, while vegetation decreased from 81.14%  
to 68.90%. This indicates the continuous conversion of natural landscapes into residential, commercial, and  
industrial zones. The most notable expansion occurred between 1996 and 2006, coinciding with the return to  
democratic governance and increased infrastructural development.  
The transformation of Makurdi from a local government headquarters following the creation of Benue state in  
1976 and the emergence of Makurdi as the state capital spurred spontaneous population and spatial growth. The  
new status as a state capital, led to the establishment of administrative institutions and new residential layouts—  
such as Judges Quarters Extension – see figure 1 (Tse Ayu), Yaikyor, Kanshio, Apir, Fiidi, Agan, Achusa, and  
Nyiman—opened new areas for development. Beyond the presence of administrative and the new residential  
layouts, daily residential neighbourhood retail needs and services have to be met. The concomitant multiplier  
effect of this development include the encroachment on flood-prone lands.  
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)  
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Fig.1: 1976 landuse structure of Makurdi.  
Source: Makurdi Capital Development Board, Pre-Final Master Plan for Makurdi.  
Urbanisation and Flood Vulnerability  
The rapid urbanisation of Makurdi has altered its natural drainage systems. Uncontrolled physical development  
and the conversion of floodplains and wetlands into residential areas have increased surface runoff and blocked  
natural waterways, making the city more prone to flooding. During heavy rainfall, low-lying areas such as Fiidi,  
Kanshio, and Wurukum experience recurrent flooding due to in-fills, poor drainage, and encroachment into  
marginal lands. In Makurdi, the interaction between population pressure, land conversion, and inadequate flood  
management infrastructure demonstrates how urbanisation acts as a major factor intensifying flood risks. These  
patterns reflect a broader trend in developing countries, where urban growth often outpaces planning and  
infrastructural capacity.  
Figure 2: Trend in Makurdi Land use land cover 1976 -2006,  
Source: Derived from Landsat Data (2020).  
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Figure 3: 2016 Makurdi Land use and Land cover 2016  
Source: Derived from Landsat Data (2020).  
In terms of the pattern of expansion, the result as depicted in Figures 2 and 3 shows that spatial expansion has  
taken a southwards direction. There has been increased urban expansion/built-up southwardly along the Makurdi  
– Gboko road all through the study (1976 to 2016). Another area of huge expansion is towards the north.  
Although at a slower pace, there appears to be conscious expansion farther away from the river course.  
Figure 4: Decadal comparative analysis of Urban Expansion in Makurdi  
Source: Derived from Landsat Data (2020).  
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From the analysis shown in Figure 4, the spatial expansion of Makurdi has primarily followed the major road  
networks, indicating that roads play a key role in directing urban growth. The River Benue serves as a major  
physical barrier that has restricted expansion towards the north, resulting in more pronounced urban development  
toward the southern parts of the city. However, despite this natural constraint, some degree of urban growth is  
still occurring beyond the river, extending northward as bridge connections and road infrastructure improve.  
Overall, the map illustrates that Makurdi’s expansion pattern is both road-oriented and influenced by the  
presence of the river, leading to a southward-dominated but gradually spreading urban form.  
Flood Vulnerability Analysis in Makurdi  
Building on the analysis of land use and land cover changes over the years, a flood vulnerability map for Makurdi  
provides insight into the extent to which various locations are exposed to flooding. The map serves as a spatial  
tool that highlights the degree of susceptibility across different parts of the city and identifies areas requiring  
varying levels of attention in terms of flood management and urban planning. The results clearly demonstrate  
that the continuous expansion of Makurdi’s built-up area has been accompanied by a corresponding increase in  
flood vulnerability, especially in low-lying zones along the River Benue and its tributaries.  
As illustrated in Figure 5, the flood vulnerability map of Makurdi categorizes the city into four levels of  
susceptibility, ranging from highly vulnerable to non-vulnerable zones. The spatial pattern observed indicates  
that urban expansion has increasingly encroached into floodplains and natural drainage channels. Over the years,  
the growing demand for land has exerted immense pressure on available space, forcing developments into  
marginal lands and areas that were once natural water retention zones. Consequently, a substantial portion of the  
city’s built-up area now lies within the highly vulnerable and vulnerable zones, making these locations more  
prone to recurrent flooding during periods of intense rainfall.  
In many parts of Makurdi, residential, commercial, and infrastructural developments have spread across areas  
that were originally unsuitable for such uses. The expansion of community infrastructure such as roads, housing  
layouts, and industrial facilities has extended across the different vulnerability layers, often obstructing natural  
drainage paths and intensifying the risk of surface water accumulation. Notably, low-lying neighborhoods such  
as Fiidi, Wadata, Nyiman, Kanshio, and Wurukum are among the most affected, experiencing frequent and  
severe flooding that leads to property damage, displacement of residents, and disruption of socio-economic  
activities. The increasing encroachment into these flood-prone zones reflects how unplanned urbanisation,  
combined with inadequate drainage infrastructure, amplifies the city’s exposure to flood hazards.  
This situation in Makurdi is reflective of a broader challenge common to many developing countries, where  
rapid urban growth often occurs in the absence of effective spatial planning and environmental control. The  
continuous conversion of floodplains and wetlands into residential and commercial areas demonstrates the extent  
to which urban expansion can transform natural landscapes into zones of vulnerability. In essence, the pattern of  
urbanisation in Makurdi driven by population growth, administrative importance, and economic activities has  
significantly altered the city’s hydrological balance, increasing the frequency and intensity of flooding. The  
findings emphasize the urgent need for sustainable urban planning strategies that integrate flood risk assessment  
into land use decisions to mitigate the adverse impacts of urbanisation on the environment and human  
settlements. Similar urbanization–flood dynamics have been observed in other Nigerian cities; Jinadu (2015)  
noted that the catastrophic 2012 floods were exacerbated by uncontrolled development, and Dodman et al. (2017)  
similarly reported that many rapidly growing African cities face rising flood risks due to unplanned urban  
expansion.  
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Figure 5: Flood Vulnerability map of Makurdi  
Source: Derived from landsat image (2020)  
The situation of flooding in Makurdi is more severe on the southern bank of the town due to its low-lying and  
waterlogged nature. This area serves as the major drainage outlet for the River Benue and its tributaries, which  
makes it naturally prone to flooding. The topographic formation of Makurdi, characterized by elevation ranging  
between 73 and 167 metres above sea level, significantly influences flood incidence across the city. During  
periods of heavy rainfall, water rapidly accumulates in these low-lying zones, leading to flash floods that  
submerge homes, roads, and farmlands. The vulnerability of these areas is further heightened by intense  
anthropogenic activities that interfere with the natural drainage systems. Much of the land use in these highly  
exposed areas is now dominated by both commercial and residential developments, which increases the level of  
human and infrastructural exposure to flood hazards.  
In recent years, the practice of sand filling in previously reserved flood-prone areas for the construction of petrol  
stations, schools, shopping complexes, and residential structures has been on the rise in Makurdi. Such  
developments not only reduce natural flood storage capacity but also redirect water flow into surrounding  
neighborhoods, increasing the frequency and severity of urban flooding. Consequently, neighborhoods such as  
Wurukum, Angwan Jukun, Wadata, Logo I and II, Akpehe, Achusa, Idye, Gyado Villa, and Nyiman fall within  
the highly vulnerable and vulnerable zones. The increase in human activities and settlements in these  
environmentally fragile areas has exacerbated the city’s overall flood risk. These communities are physically  
characterized by the absence or poor condition of drainage systems, indiscriminate dumping of solid waste into  
water channels, and the silting up of existing drains. This observation aligns with Adelekan (2016), who found  
that poorly maintained drainage systems and weak planning controls significantly increased flood risks in Lagos,  
Nigeria. The combined effect of these factors contributes to the recurrent flooding that has become a defining  
feature of urban life in Makurdi.  
Most of the built-up areas of the city now lie within these highly vulnerable locations, as clearly depicted in  
Figure 5, where flood-prone zones correspond with the densest sections of urban development. This spatial  
overlap between urban growth and flood vulnerability underscores the central argument of this study—that rapid  
and unplanned urbanisation has significantly increased the flood risk in Makurdi, similar to the experience of  
many developing cities across Sub-Saharan Africa. Additionally, the disproportionate impact on the poorest  
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neighborhoods in Makurdi reflects a broader pattern: Roy and Ferland (2015) observation that the urban poor  
often settle on high-risk, degraded land and therefore suffer most from floods resonates strongly with this finding.  
Residents’ Perception of the Causes of Flooding in Makurdi  
Urban expansion in Makurdi represents a gradual but sustained lateral growth in the city’s spatial extent,  
primarily driven by population increase and administrative importance. This growth has, over time, extended  
into marginal and flood-prone areas, transforming wetlands and riverbanks into residential and commercial  
zones. Residents’ perceptions of the causes of flooding were analyzed through field surveys, and the results are  
presented in Table 3. The data reveal that respondents overwhelmingly attribute flooding in Makurdi to  
unplanned urban development, inadequate drainage, and the conversion of low-lying lands for construction  
purposes.  
Table 3: Causal Factors of Flooding in Makurdi  
Variables  
V
SA  
A
N
D
SD  
07  
Total  
388  
100  
388  
100  
388  
100  
388  
100  
Construction of unplanned housing and drainage causes F  
flooding  
205  
52.8  
145  
37.4  
85  
142  
36.6  
178  
45.9  
188  
48.5  
169  
43,6  
15  
19  
%
03.9  
32  
04.9  
25  
1.8  
08  
Construction of unplanned roads and drainage causes F  
flooding  
%
08.2  
61  
06.4  
40  
02.1  
14  
Indiscriminate earth filling in the low-lying areas of the F  
town increase chances of flooding  
%
21.9  
89  
15.7  
68  
10.3  
44  
03.6  
18  
rban development of flood plains fuel flooding  
F
%
22.9  
17.5  
11.3  
4.6  
Urban growth and expansion is a driving force to F  
flooding  
70  
180  
46.4  
189  
48.7  
172  
44.3  
193  
49.7  
176  
45.4  
160  
81  
35  
22  
388  
100  
388  
100  
388  
100  
388  
100  
388  
100  
388  
%
18  
20.9  
65  
9.0  
40  
05.7  
24  
Increase concentration of population on marginal  
lands stimulate flooding  
F
70  
%
18  
16.8  
90  
10.3  
41  
06.2  
18  
Land cover changes increase run off and flood intensity F  
67  
%
17.3  
85  
23.2  
57  
10.6  
40  
4.6  
13  
Unplanned urban expansion directly fuels flooding  
F
%
21.9  
85  
14.7  
61  
10.3  
54  
3.4  
12  
Unguided urban development. changes the morphology F  
and hydrology of the town thereby causing flooding  
%
21.9  
129  
15.7  
63  
13.9  
24  
3.1  
12  
F
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Drainage infrastructure with limited capacity unable to %  
evacuate runoff from on-going urbanisation escalating  
flood  
33.2  
41.2  
16.2  
06.2  
03.1  
100  
Urbanisation induced changes in land use led to F  
increased peak stream flow  
%
71  
187  
48.2  
193  
49.7  
155  
39.9  
65  
55  
10  
388  
100  
388  
100  
388  
100  
18.3  
83  
16.8  
60  
14.2  
40  
2.6  
12  
Human encroachment on urban spaces makes urban F  
communities more vulnerable to floods  
%
21.4  
68  
15.5  
88  
10.3  
58  
3.1  
19  
Landuse changes from non-urban to urban areas F  
increase total runoff  
%
17.5  
22.7  
14.9  
4.9  
Source: Researcher’s Field survey, 2023.  
Table 3: reveals that the construction of unplanned houses and drainages is the major factor causing flooding in  
Makurdi, as a combined 89.4% of respondents either strongly agreed or agreed with the claim. Conversely, only  
6.7% of the respondents disagreed or strongly disagreed. Similarly, regarding unplanned roads and drainage  
systems as contributors to flooding, 37.4% of respondents strongly agreed, while 45.9% agreed. These findings  
highlight that uncoordinated urban development—particularly the unguided construction of buildings, roads,  
and drainage infrastructure—are perceived by residents as major drivers of flooding in Makurdi. This is not  
unexpected as both urbanisation and population growth are natural factors for increased anthropogenic activities  
and ecological footprints. This pattern of encroachment into natural flood buffers mirrors observations by  
Nkwunonwo et al. (2015), who noted that unplanned development on floodplains and loss of wetland storage  
are major drivers of urban flood hazards in Nigeria. These manifests as increasing built surfaces e.g buildings  
and roads construction, resulting in declining green cover.  
This finding aligns with local studies; for instance, Aliyu and Suleiman (2016) reported that frequent flooding  
in Nigerian cities like Kaduna is largely due to unchecked settlement in flood-prone areas and weak enforcement  
of land-use plans. However, while our study emphasizes these land-use and planning factors, Ajibade et al.  
(2020) argue that climate change – through more intense rainfall and extreme weather – is an equally critical  
driver of recent urban flooding. This contrast suggests that both unplanned urban growth and climate-induced  
hazard changes must be addressed to reduce flood risks in Nigerian cities.  
CONCLUSION  
This study critically examined the relationship between urban expansion and flood vulnerability in Makurdi, a  
rapidly growing city in Benue State, Nigeria. The analysis revealed that unregulated urbanisation has  
significantly increased flood risks by altering the city’s natural hydrological systems. Over the past four decades,  
Makurdi’s built-up area has expanded rapidly, encroaching upon floodplains, wetlands, and marginal lands due  
to population pressure, poverty, and weak planning control. This spatial transformation has intensified exposure  
to recurrent flooding, particularly during the peak rainfall months of July to September.  
The study further established that the absence of effective urban governance structures—such as a functional  
master plan, enforcement of planning regulations, and institutional coordination—has exacerbated the city’s  
flood vulnerability. Infrastructural developments like roads, housing, and drainage systems have been poorly  
Source: Field Work 2023  
coordinal drainage channels and increasing surface runoff. The findings revealed  
that although climatic variability contributes to flooding, anthropogenic factors such as unplanned development,  
land-use change, and indiscriminate sand-filling of floodplains are the principal drivers of flood disasters in  
Makurdi.  
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Additionally, socio-economic factors play a major role in shaping flood vulnerability. Low-income residents,  
unable to afford housing in safer areas, are forced to settle in high-risk flood zones, thereby increasing their  
exposure to hazards. This situation reflects broader patterns of social inequality and inadequate urban planning  
common to many developing cities. The statistical analyses confirmed that effective land use planning, supported  
by sound governance and public awareness, is crucial to mitigating flood risks.  
In essence, the study concludes that flood vulnerability in Makurdi is primarily a product of urbanisation  
consequent upon uncontrolled urban expansion and weak institutional regulation. Addressing these challenges  
requires an integrated approach that aligns spatial planning, environmental management, and socio-economic  
development with principles of resilience and sustainability. For Makurdi to become a flood-resilient city, it  
must transition from reactive flood response to proactive, data-driven, and participatory urban planning.  
RECOMMENDATIONS  
In line with the findings of this study, the following key recommendations are proposed to mitigate the impact  
of urbanisation-induced flooding and promote sustainable urban development in Makurdi:  
Integrate Risk-Sensitive Land Use Planning (RSLUP)  
Urban planning in Makurdi should adopt a Risk-Sensitive Land Use Planning framework that embeds flood risk  
assessments into all development decisions. Flood-prone areas, wetlands, and natural drainage corridors must be  
clearly identified, mapped, and legally protected from inappropriate development. The formulation of a new  
comprehensive master plan for Makurdi should prioritize resilient infrastructure, enforce zoning standards, and  
ensure that floodplains remain ecological buffers rather than construction sites.  
Strengthen Development Control and Institutional Capacity  
The city’s development control mechanisms must be reinforced to curb illegal construction and unregulated  
expansion. The Makurdi Capital Development Board (MCDB) and the Ministry of Lands and Urban  
Development should be equipped with adequate technical capacity, trained personnel, and digital monitoring  
tools such as GIS-based cadastral systems for real-time surveillance of land-use changes. Effective enforcement  
of planning laws and the removal of illegal structures obstructing drainage paths are essential to restoring natural  
flood buffers.  
Promote Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Restoration  
To address the ecological dimension of urban flooding, Makurdi should invest in green and blue infrastructure  
such as wetlands restoration, urban forests, riparian buffers, and permeable pavements. The adoption of  
Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) including rain gardens, retention ponds, and bio-swales will  
complement conventional stormwater management and restore the city’s natural ability to absorb and regulate  
water flows.  
Foster Political Commitment and Community Participation  
Flood resilience in Makurdi depends on strong political will and active community engagement. The Benue State  
government should prioritize flood management in its development agenda by allocating dedicated budgets and  
enforcing compliance with planning standards. Local communities, traditional leaders, and civil society  
organizations must be involved in planning, monitoring, and evaluating flood risk reduction initiatives to ensure  
inclusiveness and sustainability. Collaborative governance that bridges state and community efforts will enhance  
both accountability and long-term resilience.  
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