INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)

ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue XI November 2025

Physicochemical and Heavy Metal Indices of Oba River, Ogbomoso,

South-West Nigeria.

¹Babalola, F. T., ²Adewoye, S. O. and *³Ogundiran, M. A.

^{1, 2& 3}Department of Pure and Applied Biology, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso,

Oyo State, Nigeria

Corresponding Author*

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.51584/IJRIAS.2025.101100062

Received: 11 November 2025; Accepted: 18 November 2025; Published: 13 December 2025

ABSTRACT

This research aimed at assessing physico-chemical characteristics and occurrence of heavy metals in water

samples from Oba River. The physico-chemical characteristics and concentrations of heavy metals were

determined using standard methods. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 25.0. Practically, all the physico-

chemical characteristics assessed fell within acceptable standards by World Health Organization and Nigeria

Standard for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ). Cobalt, chromium, cadmium and lead were undetected from

the water samples. Nickel and copper were only detected during the rainy season, while iron was extremely

high during the rainy season. The anthropogenic activities around Oba River had insignificant effect on the

water quality considering the water physico-chemical characteristics and heavy metals analysis. However, high

iron concentration in Oba River during rainy season should be further researched to identify the source(s) and

continuous management of the water body is required.

Keywords: Physico-Chemical, Heavy Metals, Season, Oba River, Ogbomoso, Nigeria

INTRODUCTION

Climate change together with anthropogenic activities brings about profound alterations in the hydrological

cycle; hence, water quality degradation has become a critical global challenge¹. Untreated or incompletely

treated industrial effluents, indiscriminate disposal of domestic waste, and farm runoffs are the principal

contributors to surface water pollution and decline in water quality^2&3.Seasonal variations in anthropogenic

activities along with natural processes including temperature and precipitation upset the quality of river water

and result in different qualities per season^4&5. Seasonal variations in physico-chemical properties have an

intense impact on the fish health, dispersion and population density of both fauna and flora in any aquatic

ecosystem^6&7. Monitoring of water quality is the first step that leads to management, conservation and

sustainable utilization of aquatic resources. Water quality is most often underemphasized, it is therefore

essential to be acquainted with water quality parameters and their management which have significant impact

on aquatic organisms⁸.

Oba River is an age long means of livelihood to villagers living along its axis as well as villages nearby

through the sales of the fishes captured from it and the use of its water for irrigation farming, besides its

various domestic uses for the Ogbomoso populace. Oba River is being fed with water from diverse streams,

principally from Afon and Asa Rivers. Consequently, the river is subject to pollution, particularly from the

water sources and runoffs from farming and household domains⁹. Therefore, it is very germane to monitor the

water conditon of Oba River. Although many studies have been reported on Oba River, there is paucity and

dearth of information on the water condition of the river. This research aimed at evaluating the water quality of

Oba River in terms of the seasonal variations in the physico-chemical characteristics and concentrations of

selected heavy metals in the water samples from Oba River.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)

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MATERIALS AND METHODS

The Study Area

Oba River (8° 7’ 59. 9442” N; 4° 14’ 59. 9238” E) is situated at Ikose, Oriire Local Government Area,

Ogbomoso, Oyo State. Water samples were obtained from this river at three different sites (A: Upstream; B:

Midstream and C: Downstream) of the following coordinates in DMS (Degree Minutes Second) A: 8^o11’8.96’’

N and 4^o12’2.42’’E; B: 8^o11^’5.19’’N and 4^o12’0.75’’E; and site C: 8^o11’2.63’’N and 4^o12’1.12^oE’. The river

elevation is 305m with Geographical Positioning System of 3m accuracy. The sites were carefully chosen

along the length of the river according to notable activities around each site.

Collection of Water Samples

Surface water specimens were obtained from three sampling locations bi-monthly between 8.00 a.m. and 12

p.m. for the months of May through October, 2023, representing the rainy season; and November, 2023

through April, 2024, representing the dry season. Samples were obtained with the assistance of a local

fisherman into plastic bottles, which had been previously soaked in 3% nitric acid and washed with distilled

water before sampling¹⁰. Physico-chemical Characteristics including: temperature, pH, electrical conductivity

(EC), total dissolved solids(TDS), salinity, alkalinity, dissolved oxygen (DO), total hardness(TH), biochemical

oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended solids(TSS), nitrate, chloride, sulphate, calcium hardness, magnesium

hardness, and phosphate, were determined using the conventional methods of Association of Official

Analytical Chemists¹¹.

Digestion of the Water Samples

Digestion of the water specimens was done by introducing 100 ml of water specimens from each sampling

point into three different beakers. Five (5ml) of concentrated HNO₃was added and the sample was evaporated

on a hot plate to the lowest volume possible before precipitation. Another 5 ml of HNO₃was added to the

samples and a gentle re-fluxing was carried out using a condenser. Heating and addition of concentrated

HNO₃continued until the samples became lightly colored. Two (2 ml) of concentrated HNO₃was added to

dissolve the residue on the wall of the beakers. The wall of the beakers and the watch glasses were thereafter

washed down with deionized water. Digested samples were filtered and made up to 50 ml and then analysis of

selected heavy metals including lead, zinc, nickel, iron, cobalt, copper, cadmium and chromium were

determined in the digested water sample using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer with designated model

AAS- Perlin-Elmer 4100 ZL⁹.

Data Analysis

Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (mean and standard error of mean). The level of significance of

differences in the values of the parameters was assessed using the student's t-test in two categorical data.

Variability in the data was evaluated using the coefficient of variation. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) using

SPSS statistical package 25.0 was used in the comparison of data where values of p < 0.05 were considered

significant.

RESULTS

Analysis of Water Specimens

Physico-chemical and Heavy metals parameters

Water specimens from the three collection points (A, B and C) of Oba River were analyzed for various

physico-chemical and heavy metals parameters and compared statistically with the standards of W.H.O. and N.

S. D.W.Q. to determine the extent of pollution in the water body. The results of the mean monthly values of

each of the analyzed parameters were presented in Tables 1 and 2. Values of physico-chemical and heavy

metals parameters varied significantly across the rainy and dry seasons but no statistically significant

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)

ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue XI November 2025

variations across the sites (P>0.05) was observed as shown in the Tables 1 and 2. Cobalt, chromium, cadmium,

and lead are reported as "ND" (not detected) at all the sites and the both seasons, suggesting that their

quantities are below the detection limit.

Table 1: Mean Values of Physicochemical Characteristics and Heavy Metal Concentrations of Water Samples

from Oba River

PARAMETERS

SITE A

SITE B

SITE C

P-

Regulatory Limits

VALUE

NSDWQ

(2017)

WHO

(2011)

6.90±0.05

6.96±0.04

0.586

6.5-8.5

6.5-

8.5

Temperature (^oC)

26.39±0.25

26.78±0.13

0.18±0.01

26.53±0.16

0.17±0.01

0.349

0.888

Ambient

1000

Electrical

(ds/m)

Conductivity 0.18±0.02

Total

Dissolved

Solids 109.31±4.74

103.63±3.09

103.94±2.65

0.462

500

(mg/L)

Salinity (mg/L)

0.0003±0.0001 0.0002±0.0000 0.0002±0.0000 0.097

< 40*

<120

Alkalinity (mg/L)

26.44±3.14

54.94±9.60

109.06±2.52

20.13±1.57

54.95±9.51

107.63±2.69

20.94±1.13

54.99±9.68

111.25±2.46

0.085

1.000

0.604

Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)

Total Hardness(mg/L)

150

100-

150

Biochemical

Demand (mg/L)

Oxygen 119.25±3.57

Solids 2.40±0.07

126.19±1.62

2.34±0.08

124.56±1.57

2.40±0.06

0.121

0.822

250

Total

Suspended

1500

<1500

(mg/L)

Nitrate (mg/100ml)

Chloride (mg/100ml)

Sulphate (mg/100ml)

Calcium (mg/100)

0.16±0.01

35.14±0.42

0.18±0.00

53.45±1.28

0.17±0.01

35.03±0.64

0.20±0.03

51.96±1.36

53.86±1.62

0.37±0.01

89.15±22.96

0.03±0.01

0.29±0.06

0.17±0.01

36.32±1.27

0.17±0.01

53.92±1.20

55.19±1.56

0.37±0.01

88.74±22.86

0.03±0.01

0.29±0.06

0.596

0.505

0.222

0.531

0.847

0.610

1.000

0.332

0.974

250

100

Magnesium (mg/100ml)

Phosphate (mg/100ml)

Iron (mg/l)

54.43±1.72

0.36±0.01

88.78±22.82

0.04±0.01

0.31±0.07

0.05

0.3

Copper (mg/L)

Zinc (mg/L)

0.1

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)

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Cobalt (mg/L)

Chromium (mg/L)

Cadmium (mg/L)

Lead (mg/L)

0.05

0.003

0.01

0.02

0.05

0.003

0.01

0.03

Nickel (mg/L)

0.24±0.06

0.29±0.08

0.24±0.06

0.839

*p-value < 0.05 indicate significance

Table 2: Seasonal Variations in the Mean Values of Physico-chemical and Heavy Metal Concentrations of

Water Samples from Oba River

PARAMETERS

Season

P-

Regulatory Limits

VALUE

Rainy

Dry

NSDWQ (2017) WHO (2011)

6.90±0.04

27.03±0.05

6.98±0.04

26.10±0.17

0.23±0.01

0.141

6.5-8.5

Ambient

1000

6.5-8.5

Temperature (^oC)

*0.001

Electrical Conductivity 0.13±0.00

(ds/m)

Total Dissolved Solids 96.08±0.73

(mg/L)

115.17±3.02

*0.001

500

Salinity (mg/L)

0.0002±0.0001 0.0002±0.0001 0.815

< 40

<120

Alkalinity (mg/L)

23.75±2.39

21.25±0.86

17.81±0.15

0.33

Dissolved

(mg/L)

Oxygen 92.11±0.26

*0.001

Total Hardness(mg/L)

116.38±2.04

102.25±0.48

117.21±2.07

*0.001

150

250

100-150

Biochemical

Oxygen 129.46±0.98

Demand (mg/L)

Total Suspended Solids 2.50±0.06

(mg/L)

2.26±0.04

*0.003

1500

<1500

Nitrate (mg/100ml)

Chloride (mg/100ml)

Sulfate (mg/100ml)

Calcium (mg/100)

0.19±0.01

37.76±0.70

0.20±0.02

57.32±0.77

60.11±0.80

0.14±0.00

33.23±0.24

0.17±0.00

48.90±0.26

48.88±0.36

*0.001

0.071

250

100

*0.001

Magnesium

(mg/100ml)

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Phosphate (mg/100ml)

Iron (mg/l)

0.37±0.01

177.50±0.23

0.06±0.00

0.54±0.01

0.36±0.00

0.28±0.02

0.00±0.00

0.05±0.00

0.545

0.05

0.3

*0.001

0.3

Copper (mg/L)

Zinc (mg/L)

*0.001

0.1

Cobalt (mg/L)

Chromium (mg/L)

Cadmium (mg/L)

Lead (mg/L)

0.05

0.003

0.01

0.02

0.05

0.003

0.01

0.03

Nickel (mg/L)

0.51±0.01

0.00±0.00

*0.001

*p-value < 0.05 indicate significance

DISCUSSIONS

Physicochemical Analysis of Oba River

The pH values of the three sites fell within the neutral range. Site B shows a slightly higher pH than Sites A

and C. Variations in pH can have implications on the overall water quality and can be indicative of different

sources of pollution, such as industrial discharge or agricultural and urban runoffs¹². Levels of pH across all

sites are within the acceptable range specified by both NSDWQ¹³and WHO¹⁰, with means ranging from 6.90 ±

0.05 to 6.96 ± 0.04. Deviations from neutral pH exert significant ecological impacts¹⁴. There was insignificant

variation between the average pH values at the rainy and dry seasons.

The temperature measurements indicate minor differences among the sites, although these variations may seem

insignificant, they can have significant impacts on various aspects of aquatic ecosystems. Features like

solubility of specific compounds and the metabolic rates of aquatic organisms can be influenced by even slight

changes in temperature¹⁵. Temperature readings fell within the range for ambient water bodies, with means

ranging from 26.39°C to 26.78°C across the sites. Temperature plays a pivotal role in shaping other

environmental factors such as pH, conductivity, and diverse manifestations of alkalinity and deviations from

the norm can affect the overall health and biodiversity of the water body¹⁶. Most fishes are poikilothermic,

their physiology is significantly impacted upon by temperature, as it influences their rate of metabolism and

hence, their energy equilibrium and behaviour, as well as their locomotive and feeding manners¹⁷.

The evaluation of electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids provide insights into the number of

dissolved ions and minerals present in the water at each site. Interestingly, the values for EC and TDS show

similar ranges across the sites, suggesting comparable levels of dissolved substances. These measurements are

crucial in understanding the overall water quality and the potential for contamination¹⁸. EC determines the

water's ability to conduct electrical current, which is influenced by dissolved ions. The values reported in the

table 1 are well below the regulatory limit of 1000 μS/cm according to NSDWQ¹³, indicating low levels of

dissolved ions across all sites. Electrical conductivity was higher at the dry season than at the ray season. The

higher electrical conductivity detected at the dry season can be attributed to decreased water volume and

increased rate of evaporation while the lower value observed at the rainy season is attributable to water

dilution¹⁹.

Total dissolved solids represent the concentration of non-organic and organic particles dissolved in water. The

TDS levels observed in the table are within the acceptable range specified by both NSDWQ¹³and WHO¹⁰

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standards, suggesting that the water quality in all sites is suitable for various uses. It is very essential to control

TDS in water because high TDS levels can affect water condition and render it unfit for certain uses²⁰.

Salinity refers to the amount of dissolved salts in the water and its levels are very low across all sites,

compared to the recommended threshold of 40 mg/L according to WHO¹⁰, indicating freshwater conditions in

the sampled sites. The slight variation in salinity levels observed among the sites indicates potential differences

in the sources of water input and evaporation rates. Factors such as proximity to the coast, freshwater inputs

from rivers, and evaporation rates can all contribute to variations in salinity²¹.

Alkalinity measures how well water can buffer changes in pH and maintains stability. Alkalinity levels, which

reflect the water's capacity to withstand changes in pH, fell within acceptable range according to WHO¹⁰. The

alkalinity measurements from the three locations show some variations, which can be attributed to differences

in the geological composition of the surrounding area, the incidence of carbonates and bicarbonates, and the

impact of human activities. Understanding alkalinity is essential for assessing the water's ability to counteract

acids and keep the pH constant¹⁵.

Dissolved oxygen is a critical parameter for assessing the health of aquatic ecosystems. The differences in

dissolved oxygen levels observed among the sites may be indicative of varying degrees of organic pollution

and microbial activity. Higher levels of dissolved oxygen are generally associated with healthier ecosystems,

while lower levels can indicate oxygen depletion due to pollution or excessive organic matter¹². Dissolved

oxygen concentration is vital for aquatic biota, and the values reported in the table 1 and 2 are higher than the

minimum requirement of 6 mg/L specified by WHO¹⁰, indicating that the water holds a significant amount of

dissolved oxygen across all sites²⁰. The DO at the rainy season was considerably greater than that of the dry

season and this agrees with the report of Ajala and Fawole²². This seasonal variation can be attributed to

increased aeration due to rainfall; influx of fresh water from tributary rivers and decreased resident time of

polluted water²². Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the volume of oxygen needed by

microorganisms to decompose organic particles the water holds. The BOD levels observed in this table

exceeds the regulatory limits set by both NSDWQ¹³and WHO¹⁰, indicating potential organic pollution in the

sampling sites²³. This agrees with the report of Ogundiran and Ayandiran⁹, who also reported BOD values of

samples obtained from the same river to be higher than the permissible levels.

Total hardness measures the amount of calcium and magnesium dissolved in water, which can affect its

suitability for consumption and industrial use. The values reported in the table fall within the permissible

range, indicating moderate hardness (75 - 150 mg/L) levels across the sites²⁴. Total suspended solids represent

the concentration of particles suspended in water, which can affect water clarity and quality by decreasing the

quantity of oxygen available to aquatic organisms. The TSS levels reported in the table are below the

regulatory limit of 1500 mg/L, indicating relatively low levels of suspended solids in the sampled sites. Total

Suspended Solids evaluates the aggregate amount of suspended solids in water and is an important parameter

for monitoring water quality²⁰. The seasonality profile of total suspended solids in Oba River was higher at the

rainy season than at the dry season, this agrees with the report of Salaudeen¹⁹.

Nitrate levels are within the regulatory standards, indicating negligible pollution from nitrogen-based

chemicals such as animal or human waste and fertilizer runoff²². The seasonal values recorded for Nitrates in

rainy season are statistically considerably higher than those at the dry season. This result is in consonance with

the report of Ajala and Fawole²²who reported higher value of nitrates during the rainy season than the dry

season in the same Oba River. Chloride levels are likewise within permissible limits, indicating minimal

contamination from chloride sources such as sewage and industrial effluents, which is consistent with Smith¹⁴.

Sulphate levels fall within the acceptable range, indicating minor contamination from sulphate sources such as

mining, agricultural runoff, domestic discharges, municipal and industrial effluents²⁵. Calcium and magnesium

levels are within permissible norms. Phosphate levels exceed the recommended threshold of 0.05 mg/L

according to WHO¹⁰, indicating potential contamination from agricultural runoff and wastewater discharges²².

Phosphates values were observed to be slightly higher through the rainy season than through the dry season,

which is also similar to the report of Ajala and Fawole²².

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Heavy Metals Concentrations

Concentrations of copper and zinc fell within acceptable range with values below the regulatory standards by

NSDWQ¹³and WHO¹⁰both during the rainy and the dry seasons, suggesting minimal contamination from

anthropogenic sources¹⁴. Iron and nickel exceeded the permissible range throughout the rainy season. The

absence of detectable levels of cobalt, chromium, cadmium, and lead suggests minimal contamination from

these heavy metals, aligning with the regulatory limits¹³. Fawole et al.,

also reported none detection of

cadmium and lead from Oba River but reported their studied fish samples contained the two metals. On the

contrary, Ogundiran and Ayandiran⁹reported presence of lead in water sampled from Oba River. Heavy metals

like chromium, lead, cadmium and cobalt exert adverse effects on water quality. They constitute the primary

pollutants responsible for water contamination stemming from several causes such as power plants, mining

operations, electronic wastes disposal, agricultural and industrial runoffs, biomedical wastes disposal, and

electroplating activities. The presence of these heavy metals poses a threat to aquaculture²⁶.

The concentrations of iron, copper, zinc, and nickel were notably higher at the rainy season than at the dry

season. This suggests that factors associated with the rainy season, such as increased runoffs, domestic wastes

disposal into water erosion during rainfall and leaching, contribute to higher metal concentrations in water

bodies. The high quantity of iron (Fe) recorded in this study especially at the rainy season, may be because of

increase in total dissolved iron in Oba River²²and that the metal is naturally plentiful in Nigerian soil and no

matter the source of it the eventual repository is still the aquatic body²⁷. Conversely, the dry season recorded

lower metal concentrations, possibly due to decreased precipitation and less input from surface runoff.

However, it's crucial to monitor these metals continuously, especially at the rainy season, to ascertain their

actual sources, assess potential environmental impacts and ensure water quality standards are met.

CONCLUSION

Practically, all the physico-chemical parameters assessed fell within the recommended standards by WHO and

NSDWQ, suggesting that Oba River might not be polluted. Only BOD and phosphate exceeded regulatory

limits. The concentrations of heavy metals in the water specimens proved suitable for aquaculture purpose

since they fell within the acceptable limits specified by WHO and NSDWQ. Co, Cr, Cd and Pb were

undetected; Ni exceeded regulatory limits and excessive Fe concentration was recorded during rainy season. A

regular limnological research on Oba River is required in order to monitor its water quality for conservation

and sustainable utilization. Furthermore, there is a need to initiate further research on Oba River to identify the

definite cause(s) of extreme concentration of iron (Fe) in the river especially during the rainy season.

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