INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)

ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue XI November 2025

Physicochemical and Heavy Metal Indices of Oba River, Ogbomoso,

South-West Nigeria.

Babalola, F. T¹, Adewoye, S. O², Ogundiran, M. A³

Department of Pure and Applied Biology, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Oyo

State, Nigeria

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.51584/IJRIAS.2025.101100089

Received: 11 November 2025; Accepted: 21 November 2025; Published: 19 December 2025

ABSTRACT

This research aimed at assessing physico-chemical characteristics and occurrence of heavy metals in water

samples from Oba River. The physico-chemical characteristics and concentrations of heavy metals were

determined using standard methods. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 25.0. Practically, all the physico-

chemical characteristics assessed fell within acceptable standards by World Health Organization and Nigeria

Standard for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ). Cobalt, chromium, cadmium and lead were undetected from

the water samples. Nickel and copper were only detected during the rainy season, while iron was extremely high

during the rainy season. The anthropogenic activities around Oba River had insignificant effect on the water

quality considering the water physico-chemical characteristics and heavy metals analysis. However, high iron

concentration in Oba River during rainy season should be further researched to identify the source(s) and

continuous management of the water body is required.

Keywords: Physico-Chemical, Heavy Metals, Season, Oba River, Ogbomoso, Nigeria

INTRODUCTION

Climate change together with anthropogenic activities brings about profound alterations in the hydrological

cycle; hence, water quality degradation has become a critical global challenge¹. Untreated or incompletely

treated industrial effluents, indiscriminate disposal of domestic waste, and farm runoffs are the principal

contributors to surface water pollution and decline in water quality^2&3.Seasonal variations in anthropogenic

activities along with natural processes including temperature and precipitation upset the quality of river water

and result in different qualities per season^4&5. Seasonal variations in physico-chemical properties have an intense

impact on the fish health, dispersion and population density of both fauna and flora in any aquatic ecosystem^6&7

Monitoring of water quality is the first step that leads to management, conservation and sustainable utilization

of aquatic resources. Water quality is most often under emphasized, it is therefore essential to be acquainted with

water quality parameters and their management which have significant impact on aquatic organisms⁸.

Oba River is an age long means of livelihood to villagers living along its axis as well as villages nearby through

the sales of the fishes captured from it and the use of its water for irrigation farming, besides its various domestic

uses for the Ogbomoso populace. Oba River is being fed with water from diverse streams, principally from Afon

and Asa Rivers. Consequently, the river is subject to pollution, particularly from the water sources and runoffs

from farming and household domains⁹. Therefore, it is very germane to monitor the water conditon of Oba River.

Although many studies have been reported on Oba River, there is paucity and dearth of information on the water

condition of the river. This research aimed at evaluating the water quality of Oba River in terms of the seasonal

variations in the physico-chemical characteristics and concentrations of selected heavy metals in the water

samples from Oba River.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The Study Area

Oba River (8° 7’ 59. 9442” N; 4° 14’ 59. 9238” E) is situated at Ikose, Oriire Local Government Area,

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)

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Ogbomoso, Oyo State. Water samples were obtained from this river at three different sites (A: Upstream; B:

Midstream and C: Downstream) of the following coordinates in DMS (Degree Minutes Second) A: 8^o11’8.96’’

N and 4^o12’2.42’’E; B: 8^o11^’5.19’’N and 4^o12’0.75’’E; and site C: 8^o11’2.63’’N and 4^o12’1.12^oE’. The river

elevation is 305m with Geographical Positioning System of 3m accuracy. The sites were carefully chosen along

the length of the river according to notable activities around each site.

Collection of Water Samples

Surface water specimens were obtained from three sampling locations bi-monthly between 8.00 a.m. and 12 p.m.

for the months of May through October, 2023, representing the rainy season; and November, 2023 through April,

2024, representing the dry season. Samples were obtained with the assistance of a local fisherman into plastic

bottles, which had been previously soaked in 3% nitric acid and washed with distilled water before sampling¹⁰.

Physico-chemical Characteristics including: temperature, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids

(TDS), salinity, alkalinity, dissolved oxygen (DO), total hardness (TH), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),

total suspended solids (TSS), nitrate, chloride, sulphate, calcium hardness, magnesium hardness, and phosphate,

were determined using the conventional methods of Association of Official Analytical Chemists¹¹.

Digestion of the Water Samples

Digestion of the water specimens was done by introducing 100 ml of water specimens from each sampling point

into three different beakers. Five (5ml) of concentrated HNO₃was added and the sample was evaporated on a

hot plate to the lowest volume possible before precipitation. Another 5 ml of HNO₃was added to the samples

and a gentle re-fluxing was carried out using a condenser. Heating and addition of concentrated HNO₃continued

until the samples became lightly colored. Two (2 ml) of concentrated HNO₃was added to dissolve the residue

on the wall of the beakers. The wall of the beakers and the watch glasses were thereafter washed down with

deionized water. Digested samples were filtered and made up to 50 ml and then analysis of selected heavy

metals including lead, zinc, nickel, iron, cobalt, copper, cadmium and chromium were determined in the digested

water sample using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer with designated model AAS- Perlin-Elmer 4100 ZL⁹.

Data Analysis

Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (mean and standard error of mean). The level of significance of

differences in the values of the parameters was assessed using the student's t-test in two categorical data.

Variability in the data was evaluated using the coefficient of variation. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) using

SPSS statistical package 25.0 was used in the comparison of data where values of p < 0.05 were considered

significant.

RESULTS

Analysis of Water Specimens

Physico-chemical and Heavy metals parameters

Water specimens from the three collection points (A, B and C) of Oba River were analyzed for various physico-

chemical and heavy metals parameters and compared statistically with the standards of W.H.O. and N. S. D.W.Q.

to determine the extent of pollution in the water body. The results of the mean monthly values of each of the

analyzed parameters were presented in Tables 1 and 2. Values of physico-chemical and heavy metals parameters

varied significantly across the rainy and dry seasons but no statistically significant variations across the sites

(P>0.05) was observed as shown in the Tables 1 and 2. Cobalt, chromium, cadmium, and lead are reported as

"ND" (not detected) at all the sites and the both seasons, suggesting that their quantities are below the detection

limit

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)

ISSN No. 2454-6194 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRIAS |Volume X Issue XI November 2025

Table 1: Mean Values of Physicochemical Characteristics and Heavy Metal Concentrations of Water Samples

from Oba River

Regulatory Limits

PARAMETERS

SITE A

SITE B

SITE C

P-VALUE

NSDWQ

(2017)

WHO (2011)

6.90±0.05

6.96±0.04

26.53±0.16

0.17±0.01

103.94±2.65

0.586

0.349

0.888

0.462

6.5-8.5

Temperature (^oC)

26.39±0.25

0.18±0.02

26.78±0.13

0.18±0.01

Ambient

Electrical Conductivity (ds/m)

Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L)

Salinity (mg/L)

1000

500

109.31±4.74

0.0003±0.0001

26.44±3.14

54.94±9.60

109.06±2.52

103.63±3.09

0.0002±0.0000

20.13±1.57

54.95±9.51

107.63±2.69

126.19±1.62

500

0.0002±0.0000 0.097

< 40*

<120

Alkalinity (mg/L)

20.94±1.13

54.99±9.68

111.25±2.46

124.56±1.57

0.085

1.000

0.604

0.121

Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)

Total Hardness(mg/L)

150

250

100-150

Biochemical Oxygen Demand 119.25±3.57

(mg/L)

Total Suspended Solids (mg/L) 2.40±0.07

2.34±0.08

0.17±0.01

35.03±0.64

0.20±0.03

51.96±1.36

53.86±1.62

0.37±0.01

89.15±22.96

0.03±0.01

0.29±0.06

2.40±0.06

0.17±0.01

36.32±1.27

0.17±0.01

53.92±1.20

55.19±1.56

0.37±0.01

88.74±22.86

0.03±0.01

0.29±0.06

0.822

0.596

0.505

0.222

0.531

0.847

0.610

1.000

0.332

0.974

1500

<1500

Nitrate (mg/100ml)

Chloride (mg/100ml)

Sulphate (mg/100ml)

Calcium (mg/100)

Magnesium (mg/100ml)

Phosphate (mg/100ml)

Iron (mg/l)

0.16±0.01

35.14±0.42

0.18±0.00

53.45±1.28

54.43±1.72

0.36±0.01

88.78±22.82

0.04±0.01

0.31±0.07

250

100

0.05

0.3

Copper (mg/L)

Zinc (mg/L)

0.1

Cobalt (mg/L)

Chromium (mg/L)

Cadmium (mg/L)

Lead (mg/L)

0.05

0.003

0.01

0.02

0.05

0.003

0.01

0.03

Nickel (mg/L)

0.24±0.06

0.29±0.08

0.24±0.06

0.839

*p-value < 0.05 indicate significance

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)

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Table 2: Seasonal Variations in the Mean Values of Physico-chemical and Heavy Metal Concentrations of Water

Samples from Oba River

PARAMETERS

Season

Rainy

P-VALUE Regulatory Limits

NSDWQ (2017)

Dry

WHO

(2011)

6.90±0.04

6.98±0.04

0.141

6.5-8.5

Temperature (^oC)

27.03±0.05

26.10±0.17

0.23±0.01

*0.001

0.815

Ambient

Electrical Conductivity (ds/m) 0.13±0.00

Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L) 96.08±0.73

1000

500

115.17±3.02

0.0002±0.0001

21.25±0.86

17.81±0.15

102.25±0.48

117.21±2.07

500

< 40

<120

Salinity (mg/L)

0.0002±0.0001

23.75±2.39

Alkalinity (mg/L)

0.33

Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)

Total Hardness(mg/L)

92.11±0.26

*0.001

116.38±2.04

150

250

100-150

Biochemical Oxygen Demand 129.46±0.98

(mg/L)

Total

Suspended

Solids 2.50±0.06

2.26±0.04

*0.003

1500

<1500

(mg/L)

Nitrate (mg/100ml)

Chloride (mg/100ml)

Sulfate (mg/100ml)

Calcium (mg/100)

Magnesium (mg/100ml)

Phosphate (mg/100ml)

Iron (mg/l)

0.19±0.01

37.76±0.70

0.20±0.02

57.32±0.77

60.11±0.80

0.37±0.01

177.50±0.23

0.06±0.00

0.54±0.01

0.14±0.00

33.23±0.24

0.17±0.00

48.90±0.26

48.88±0.36

0.36±0.00

0.28±0.02

0.00±0.00

0.05±0.00

*0.001

0.071

*0.001

0.545

*0.001

250

100

0.05

0.3

Copper (mg/L)

Zinc (mg/L)

0.1

Cobalt (mg/L)

Chromium (mg/L)

Cadmium (mg/L)

Lead (mg/L)

0.05

0.003

0.01

0.02

0.05

0.003

0.01

0.03

Nickel (mg/L)

0.51±0.01

0.00±0.00

*0.001

*p-value < 0.05 indicate significance

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DISCUSSIONS

Physicochemical Analysis of Oba River

The pH values of the three sites fell within the neutral range. Site B shows a slightly higher pH than Sites A and

C. Variations in pH can have implications on the overall water quality and can be indicative of different sources

of pollution, such as industrial discharge or agricultural and urban runoffs¹². Levels of pH across all sites are

within the acceptable range specified by both NSDWQ¹³and WHO¹⁰, with means ranging from 6.90 ± 0.05 to

6.96 ± 0.04. Deviations from neutral pH exert significant ecological impacts¹⁴. There was insignificant variation

between the average pH values at the rainy and dry seasons.

The temperature measurements indicate minor differences among the sites, although these variations may seem

insignificant, they can have significant impacts on various aspects of aquatic ecosystems. Features like solubility

of specific compounds and the metabolic rates of aquatic organisms can be influenced by even slight changes in

temperature¹⁵. Temperature readings fell within the range for ambient water bodies, with means ranging from

26.39°C to 26.78°C across the sites. Temperature plays a pivotal role in shaping other environmental factors

such as pH, conductivity, and diverse manifestations of alkalinity and deviations from the norm can affect the

overall health and biodiversity of the water body¹⁶. Most fishes are poikilothermic, their physiology is

significantly impacted upon by temperature, as it influences their rate of metabolism and hence, their energy

equilibrium and behaviour, as well as their locomotive and feeding manners¹⁷.

The evaluation of electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids provide insights into the number of dissolved

ions and minerals present in the water at each site. Interestingly, the values for EC and TDS show similar ranges

across the sites, suggesting comparable levels of dissolved substances. These measurements are crucial in

understanding the overall water quality and the potential for contamination¹⁸. EC determines the water's ability

to conduct electrical current, which is influenced by dissolved ions. The values reported in the table 1 are well

below the regulatory limit of 1000 μS/cm according to NSDWQ¹³, indicating low levels of dissolved ions across

all sites. Electrical conductivity was higher at the dry season than at the ray season. The higher electrical

conductivity detected at the dry season can be attributed to decreased water volume and increased rate of

evaporation while the lower value observed at the rainy season is attributable to water dilution¹⁹.

Total dissolved solids represent the concentration of non-organic and organic particles dissolved in water.

The TDS levels observed in the table are within the acceptable range specified by both NSDWQ¹³and WHO¹⁰

standards, suggesting that the water quality in all sites is suitable for various uses. It is very essential to control

TDS in water because high TDS levels can affect water condition and render it unfit for certain uses²⁰.

Salinity refers to the amount of dissolved salts in the water and its levels are very low across all sites, compared

to the recommended threshold of 40 mg/L according to WHO¹⁰, indicating freshwater conditions in the sampled

sites. The slight variation in salinity levels observed among the sites indicates potential differences in the sources

of water input and evaporation rates. Factors such as proximity to the coast, freshwater inputs from rivers, and

evaporation rates can all contribute to variations in salinity²¹.

Alkalinity measures how well water can buffer changes in pH and maintains stability. Alkalinity levels, which

reflect the water's capacity to withstand changes in pH, fell within acceptable range according to WHO¹⁰. The

alkalinity measurements from the three locations show some variations, which can be attributed to differences

in the geological composition of the surrounding area, the incidence of carbonates and bicarbonates, and the

impact of human activities. Understanding alkalinity is essential for assessing the water's ability to counteract

acids and keep the pH constant¹⁵.

Dissolved oxygen is a critical parameter for assessing the health of aquatic ecosystems. The differences in

dissolved oxygen levels observed among the sites may be indicative of varying degrees of organic pollution and

microbial activity. Higher levels of dissolved oxygen are generally associated with healthier ecosystems, while

lower levels can indicate oxygen depletion due to pollution or excessive organic matter¹². Dissolved oxygen

concentration is vital for aquatic biota, and the values reported in the table 1 and 2 are higher than the minimum

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requirement of 6 mg/L specified by WHO¹⁰, indicating that the water holds a significant amount of dissolved

oxygen across all sites²⁰. The DO at the rainy season was considerably greater than that of the dry season and

this agrees with the report of Ajala and Fawole²². This seasonal variation can be attributed to increased aeration

due to rainfall; influx of fresh water from tributary rivers and decreased resident time of polluted water²².

Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the volume of oxygen needed by microorganisms to decompose

organic particles the water holds. The BOD levels observed in this table exceeds the regulatory limits set by both

NSDWQ¹³and WHO¹⁰, indicating potential organic pollution in the sampling sites²³. This agrees with the report

of Ogundiran and Ayandiran⁹, who also reported BOD values of samples obtained from the same river to be

higher than the permissible levels.

Total hardness measures the amount of calcium and magnesium dissolved in water, which can affect its

suitability for consumption and industrial use. The values reported in the table fall within the permissible range,

indicating moderate hardness (75 - 150 mg/L) levels across the sites²⁴. Total suspended solids represent the

concentration of particles suspended in water, which can affect water clarity and quality by decreasing the

quantity of oxygen available to aquatic organisms. The TSS levels reported in the table are below the regulatory

limit of 1500 mg/L, indicating relatively low levels of suspended solids in the sampled sites. Total Suspended

Solids evaluates the aggregate amount of suspended solids in water and is an important parameter for monitoring

water quality²⁰. The seasonality profile of total suspended solids in Oba River was higher at the rainy season

than at the dry season, this agrees with the report of Salaudeen¹⁹.

Nitrate levels are within the regulatory standards, indicating negligible pollution from nitrogen-based chemicals

such as animal or human waste and fertilizer runoff²². The seasonal values recorded for Nitrates in rainy season

are statistically considerably higher than those at the dry season. This result is in consonance with the report of

Ajala and Fawole²²who reported higher value of nitrates during the rainy season than the dry season in the same

Oba River. Chloride levels are likewise within permissible limits, indicating minimal contamination from

chloride sources such as sewage and industrial effluents, which is consistent with Smith¹⁴. Sulphate levels fall

within the acceptable range, indicating minor contamination from sulphate sources such as mining, agricultural

runoff, domestic discharges, municipal and industrial effluents²⁵. Calcium and magnesium levels are within

permissible norms. Phosphate levels exceed the recommended threshold of 0.05 mg/L according to WHO¹⁰,

indicating potential contamination from agricultural runoff and wastewater discharges²². Phosphates values were

observed to be slightly higher through the rainy season than through the dry season, which is also similar to the

report of Ajala and Fawole²².

Heavy Metals Concentrations

Concentrations of copper and zinc fell within acceptable range with values below the regulatory standards by

NSDWQ¹³and WHO¹⁰both during the rainy and the dry seasons, suggesting minimal contamination from

anthropogenic sources¹⁴. Iron and nickel exceeded the permissible range throughout the rainy season. The

absence of detectable levels of cobalt, chromium, cadmium, and lead suggests minimal contamination from these

heavy metals, aligning with the regulatory limits¹³. Fawole et al., ²²also reported none detection of cadmium

and lead from Oba River but reported their studied fish samples contained the two metals. On the contrary,

Ogundiran and Ayandiran⁹reported presence of lead in water sampled from Oba River. Heavy metals like

chromium, lead, cadmium and cobalt exert adverse effects on water quality. They constitute the primary

pollutants responsible for water contamination stemming from several causes such as power plants, mining

operations, electronic wastes disposal, agricultural and industrial runoffs, biomedical wastes disposal, and

electroplating activities. The presence of these heavy metals poses a threat to aquaculture²⁶.

The concentrations of iron, copper, zinc, and nickel were notably higher at the rainy season than at the dry

season. This suggests that factors associated with the rainy season, such as increased runoffs, domestic wastes

disposal into water erosion during rainfall and leaching, contribute to higher metal concentrations in water

bodies. The high quantity of iron (Fe) recorded in this study especially at the rainy season, may be because of

increase in total dissolved iron in Oba River²²and that the metal is naturally plentiful in Nigerian soil and no

matter the source of it the eventual repository is still the aquatic body²⁷. Conversely, the dry season recorded

lower metal concentrations, possibly due to decreased precipitation and less input from surface runoff. However,

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it's crucial to monitor these metals continuously, especially at the rainy season, to ascertain their actual sources,

assess potential environmental impacts and ensure water quality standards are met.

CONCLUSION

Practically, all the physico-chemical parameters assessed fell within the recommended standards by WHO and

NSDWQ, suggesting that Oba River might not be polluted. Only BOD and phosphate exceeded regulatory limits.

The concentrations of heavy metals in the water specimens proved suitable for aquaculture purpose since they

fell within the acceptable limits specified by WHO and NSDWQ. Co, Cr, Cd and Pb were undetected; Ni

exceeded regulatory limits and excessive Fe concentration was recorded during rainy season. A regular

limnological research on Oba River is required in order to monitor its water quality for conservation and

sustainable utilization. Furthermore, there is a need to initiate further research on Oba River to identify the

definite cause(s) of extreme concentration of iron (Fe) in the river especially during the rainy season.

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