Community-based preparedness is a critical component of effective disaster risk reduction, particularly in

regions vulnerable to earthquakes. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have emerged as key actors in

the pivotal contributions of NGOs in areas such as risk communication, community training, early warning

dissemination, and the integration of local knowledge in preparedness planning. Moreover, successful

programs were often characterized by participatory approaches, long-term community engagement, and

collaboration with government institutions. However, the review also identifies persistent challenges, including

limited funding, coordination issues, and lack of standardized evaluation metrics. This study underscores the

importance of strategic NGO involvement in disaster preparedness and provides policy-relevant insights for

stakeholders aiming to strengthen community resilience against seismic hazards. By synthesizing diverse

global experiences, this review contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of how NGOs can

engagement, enhancing community capacity, and translating national policies into locally meaningful action

(Allen, 2006; Rahman, 2019). Their proximity to communities allows them to act as both facilitators and

advocates in risk governance.

Research shows that NGO-led initiatives can significantly improve community preparedness levels. In Nepal,

for instance, community emergency response trainings conducted by NGOs have enhanced residents'

understanding of evacuation procedures and the proper use of early warning tools (Sharma, Rai, and Ghimire,

2018). Such interventions are often effective because they merge participatory methods with context-sensitive

approaches, fostering a sense of ownership and sustained engagement among local residents. One of the key

strengths of NGOs lies in their flexibility and adaptability. Following the 2010 earthquake in Haiti, several

NGOs collaborated with local stakeholders to implement culturally sensitive evacuation drills and awareness

Makassar, Indonesia, significantly improved residents' well-being and resilience. Although the study focused

on flood hazards, the underlying principles of community participation and NGO facilitation are equally

relevant in the context of earthquake preparedness. The integration of local knowledge in preparedness

planning is another domain where NGOs have shown leadership. Mercer et al. (2010) argue that blending

indigenous knowledge with scientific risk assessments results in more robust and culturally appropriate DRR

strategies. NGOs often act as mediators between formal institutions and communities, enabling the co-creation

of knowledge that aligns both with tradition and modern disaster science.

Community-based approaches also align with the concept of “sustainable resilience,” where capacity-building

extends beyond one-time interventions. In Indonesia, long-term NGO engagement in post-tsunami recovery

efforts led to a sustained increase in public disaster awareness and institutional coordination (Lassa, 2015).

committed to long-term resilience investments.

Evaluation remains another critical issue. Most community-based preparedness programs lack standardized

metrics to assess impact. Gaillard and Mercer (2012) stress the need for participatory evaluation frameworks

that incorporate both quantitative indicators and qualitative feedback from communities. This ensures that

programs are not only effective from a technical standpoint but also resonate with the lived realities of the

people they are designed to protect. NGOs have also made notable contributions in advancing community-

based early warning systems. In Japan, partnerships between NGOs and academic institutions led to the

development of locally adapted early warning platforms that improved community responsiveness to seismic

alerts (Nakamura, 2014). Such innovations highlight the potential of NGOs to play an active role in

technological dissemination and risk communication.

have played a central role in community-based earthquake preparedness. By examining cases from diverse

geographical, socio-political, and institutional contexts, this study seeks to identify recurring strategies, critical

success factors, and challenges that shape the effectiveness of NGO-led initiatives. Additionally, the study

explores how NGOs collaborate with governments and communities to bridge the policy-practice divide in

disaster risk governance. Ultimately, this study contributes to disaster management literature by offering

evidence-based insights into how NGOs enhance resilience at the community level. The findings will inform

not only academic discourse but also practical policymaking and program design in earthquake-prone regions.

By synthesizing global lessons and framing actionable recommendations, this review supports the

development of more inclusive, participatory, and sustainable disaster preparedness frameworks.

through household-level training on evacuation protocols and first aid skills. This proactive engagement

illustrates NGOs’ potential to foster a culture of preparedness before disasters strike.

A hallmark of effective NGO intervention is the use of participatory methodologies that empower local

populations. Participation is not merely instrumental but transformative, fostering trust and mutual

accountability between stakeholders (Gaillard and Mercer, 2012). In Haiti, following the 2010 earthquake,

NGOs collaborated with communities to design culturally appropriate evacuation simulations, ensuring that

interventions were both technically sound and locally acceptable (Walsh and Djalante, 2017; Sahib et al.,

2019).

Mercer et al. (2010) further emphasize the value of co-produced knowledge in DRR. Their study in the Pacific

involves dialogue between local stakeholders and external experts. This hybrid knowledge system enhances

the legitimacy and effectiveness of preparedness plans, especially in rural and indigenous communities.

In Indonesia, Lassa (2015) found that NGOs who respected and incorporated local beliefs into earthquake

education campaigns achieved higher levels of community engagement. Rather than displacing traditional

knowledge, NGOs acted as facilitators, validating local experiences while introducing modern risk

communication tools. This approach is particularly valuable in seismic risk areas where cultural worldviews

influence perceptions of hazard.

NGOs not only focus on hazard-specific interventions but also address underlying vulnerabilities that

exacerbate disaster impacts. Holistic programs combining health, education, and livelihoods have shown to

Despite their advantages, NGOs face considerable challenges in sustaining community-based preparedness

initiatives. One critical issue is funding volatility. As Clarke, Fanany, and Kenny (2019) argue, many NGOs

depend on short-term donor grants that hinder long-term program planning and evaluation. Once funding ends,

programs are often discontinued, leaving communities with partially developed capacities. Coordination is

another persistent challenge. Fragmentation among NGOs, government bodies, and international donors often

NGOs have contributed to technological innovations in community-based early warning systems. In Japan,

local NGOs partnered with universities to create simplified earthquake alert systems tailored for elderly and

linguistically diverse populations (Nakamura, 2014). These efforts enhanced the accessibility of scientific

information and encouraged more timely responses during seismic events. Such innovations demonstrate how

an earthquake occurs. Furthermore, comparative analyses across regions are scarce, limiting our understanding

outcomes, and reported challenges.

building, risk communication, local knowledge integration, and institutional collaboration. Each theme was

analysed across geographical and institutional contexts to identify patterns, similarities, and divergences. This

One of the most consistent findings across the reviewed literature is the pivotal role of NGOs in empowering

horizontal integration—between NGOs, governments, academic institutions, and communities—for scalable

and sustainable preparedness efforts (Walsh and Djalante, 2017).

A recurrent challenge across studies is funding instability, which hinders long-term planning and program

sustainability. Many NGO initiatives were found to be time-bound, tied to donor cycles, and lacked provisions