Chemical Analysis of Microplastics in Sachet Water Samples in Katsina Metropolis: Improving Health and Safety Standards

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN APPLIED SCIENCE (IJRIAS)
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Chemical Analysis of Microplastics in Sachet Water Samples in
Katsina Metropolis: Improving Health and Safety Standards

Nuhu Usman1 & Usman Ibrahim2
, 1*Auwalu Jalo

1 Biology Department, School of Secondary Education Sciences, Federal College of Education Katsina,
Nigeria

2 Integrated Science Department, School of Secondary Education Sciences, Federal College of Education
Katsina, Nigeria

*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://doi.org/10.51584/IJRIAS.2025.100900092

Received: 20 September 2025; Accepted: 27 September 2025; Published: 25 October 2025

ABSTRACT

The assessment of microplastics (MPs) in sachet water samples sold in Katsina metropolis was investigated.
The absorption peak of the infrared spectroscopy (IR) obtained were 1640, 2117 and 3265 cm-1 for sample SA;
1192, 1640, 2124, 3265 cm-1 for SB ; for sample SC: 2035, 2146, 2236, 2333, 3227, 3667, 3734, 3816 cm-1 , SD:
1640, 2117, 3265 cm-1, sample SE: 1640, 2124, 3265 cm-1 and SF: 1640, 2117, 3265 cm-1. The absorption peak
of samples SA to SF that correspond to functional groups were C=C, C=O, O-H, except SC that have additional C-
O. Comparatively, all the studied samples were absorbed at 1640 cm-1 while other absorption peaks varied. The
particle size of the sample ranged from 32.0 particle/0.75L sample SA to 64.1 particle/0.75L sample SF. The
microplastic detected were generally polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE), and polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) and granules in shape. Microplastic pollution load index (MPPLI), micro-plastic contamination
factor (MPCF), and the estimated daily intake (EDI) for both adults and children were determined. The MPCF
values obtained ranged from 1.00 for sample SA to 2.00 for sample SC with a series of profile as SA˂
SB˂SF˂SE˂SD˂SC. The result for EDI for adults was slightly greater than 1 except in all the samples except
sample SC which was 2.01 depicting moderate and high daily intake in adults respectively. The EDI for
children ranged from 3.84 in sample SA to 7.6 9 in sample SC. The EDI result showed that children consume
more microplastics than adults. The MPPLI obtained was 1.28. Microplastic in sachet water require significant
attention to reduce the menace it may cause in the health status of humans due to high daily intake studied.

Keywords: Microplastic, Sachet water, Health risk, Polymer, Contamination

INTRODUCTION

Microplastics are classified as synthetic plastic fragments that are often invisible to the naked eye but have
significant environmental and health implications. Their presence in drinking water stems from various
sources, including the degradation of plastic packaging, industrial emissions, and atmospheric deposition [11].
These particles can harbor toxic chemicals and microorganisms, increasing health risks when consumed [4].
Microplastic contamination has become a global environmental and health concern due to the widespread use
of plastic materials in modern society. Andrady, [3] see microplastics as plastic particles smaller than 5 mm,
that originate from the breakdown of larger plastic debris (secondary microplastics) or are directly
manufactured as microbeads or pellets (primary microplastics). These particles find their way into terrestrial
and aquatic environments through improper waste management and industrial activities, eventually infiltrating
drinking water sources.

Globally, the issue of microplastic contamination in drinking water has gained significant attention due to its
potential health risks. Mason et al., [8] identified synthetic polymer contamination in bottled water, attributing
it to mechanical stress and the leaching of microplastics from packaging materials. Terefe et al. [12]
documented microplastic particles in table salts, emphasizing the widespread nature of plastic pollution and its
infiltration into everyday consumables.

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The ubiquitous presence of plastics in ecosystems has led to microplastics infiltrating water systems, food
chains, and human bodies. In regions like Katsina Metropolis, where sachet water is a primary source of
drinking water, concerns about microplastic contamination are exacerbated by poor waste disposal practices,
substandard

packaging, and harsh storage conditions such as prolonged exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation Okpashi et
al., [10]. Despite the known risks of microplastics, ranging from their potential to act as vectors for toxic
pollutants to causing cellular damage when ingested, there is limited empirical data on their prevalence in
sachet water in Katsina. The absence of such data undermines efforts to establish effective regulations,
improve packaging standards, and educate the public on safe water handling practices. Without intervention,
the health risks associated with microplastic ingestion may become an unaddressed public health crisis in the
region. While existing studies have focused on neighboring regions, this research will provide localized
insights into Katsina Metropolis.

Sachet water, a widely consumed and affordable drinking water option in Katsina particularly and Nigeria at
large, is not exempt from this issue. Studies suggest that sachet water is particularly prone to contamination
due to poor storage conditions, leaching of packaging materials, and environmental exposure (Aliyu et al., [1].

Similarly, Udoh et al., [13] explore the issue of water inequality in Chiapas, Mexico, where despite abundant
water resources, over half of the population, particularly in rural and indigenous areas, lacks access to basic
water services. This disparity contributes to health issues, including waterborne diseases. The study calls for a
transdisciplinary approach to water management that addresses social inequalities and promotes sustainable,
community-based solutions to improve water access and public health.

In Africa, Bazaanah and Mothapo (2023) conducted a comprehensive analysis of water and sanitation systems
in the rural communities of Lepelle Nkumpi Local Municipality, South Africa. Utilizing a mixed-methods
approach, they gathered data from 657 household and institutional respondents. The study revealed that
households use water for various purposes, including consumption, domestic chores, and productive activities.

In Nigeria, sachet water serves as an affordable and widely consumed alternative to other drinking water
sources. However, it is not exempt from contamination risks. Aliyu et al., [1] reported significant microplastic
pollution in sachet water from Kaduna Metropolis, identifying poor packaging standards, environmental
degradation, and improper storage conditions as major contributors. Okpashi et al., [10] revealed that exposure
to ultraviolet (UV) rays during storage accelerates the degradation of plastic packaging, releasing microplastics
into the water. These studies highlight a systemic challenge, pointing to inadequate regulations and monitoring
in the sachet water industry across Nigeria. Kusa & Joshua [7] study assessed the physicochemical and
biological properties of various sachet water brands in Nigeria. Findings indicated that while most parameters
met standard guidelines, certain brands exhibited elevated levels of lead and iron. Notably, all sampled brands
were contaminated with Escherichia coli, posing significant health risks. The study underscores the necessity
for stringent quality control measures and regular monitoring to ensure the safety of sachet water consumed by
the public. Udoh et al., [13] highlighted concerns regarding the microbial quality of packaged drinking water,
including sachet water, in Nigeria. The study revealed that some products did not comply with World Health
Organization (WHO) and Nigerian Industrial Standards (NIS) for drinking water quality, detecting pathogens
such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella species. These findings emphasize the critical need for improved
regulatory oversight and adherence to safety standards to protect public health.

However, Imam et al., [5] assesses the state of drinking water quality monitoring in Northern Nigeria,
revealing that only 13.11% of the population has access to clean water. Additionally, 31.14% of water sources
were deemed 'fair,' necessitating further treatment to prevent health issues due to contamination levels not
meeting WHO standards. The study emphasizes the urgent need for comprehensive monitoring and
intervention to meet Sustainable Development Goal 6 by 2030. Adesakin et al., [2] evaluates the
physicochemical and microbial quality of sachet water brands in the Samaru community, Zaria. Findings
indicated that while most physicochemical parameters met WHO [15] standards, there were concerns
regarding microbial contamination due to prolonged storage and inadequate handling practices. The study

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analyzed the different types of Microplastic in sachet water samples and assessed the risk exposure of humans
to the existing Microplastic based on daily intake in both adults and children of the sampled sachet water of
Katsina metropolis.

Materials and Methods

Study Area

The study was carried out in the Katsina metropolis, Katsina State. It is located in the North-Western part of
Nigeria at: 12o 59’7.9116 N and 7o 37’1.7184’’E.

Sample Collection

Six different brands of sachet water samples from different sampling sites were purchased in triplicate in
Katsina Metroplis, Katsina State, Nigeria and labeled SA, SB, SC, SD, SE, and SF. They were stored in an ice
chest and transported to the laboratory for analysis.

Sample Processing

The water samples were filtered using Whatman 1823-047 grade GF/D glass fibre filter paper with a pore size
of 2.7 µm in other to separate the MNPs from the bulk water. The MNPs obtained from filtration were
thoroughly washed with distilled water and oven-dried at 65°C. The mass of the MNPs was then determined
by weighing the dried solid MNPs using an analytical balance to the nearest 0.1 mg.

MPs Characterization

Visual Sorting –This identifies MNP numbers, sizes, shapes and colours. MNPs were identified using a Nikon
SMZ 745T stereomicroscope at 20–40× magnification [9].

Procedure for FTIR

Buck scientific M530 USA FTIR was used for the analysis. This instrument was equipped with a detector of
deuterated triglycinesulphate and beam splitter of potassium bromide. The software of Gram SA was used to
obtain the spectra and to manipulate them. An approximately of 1.0g of samples, 0.5ml of nujol was added,
they were mixed properly and placed on a salt pellet. During measurement, FTIR spectra were obtained at
frequency regions of 4,000 – 600 cm-1 and co- added at 32 scans and at 4 cm-1 resolution. FTIR spectra were
displayed as transmitter values.

Health Risk Assessment of Microplastics: Microplastics contamination factors and pollution load index

The microplastics contamination factors (MPCfs) and pollution load index (MPPLI) in the sachet water were
measured as described in previous studies Verla et al., [13]. The MPCf refers to the contamination of MPs in the
studied drinking water (Sachet water) compared to the background values. The MPCf and MPPLI were
mathematically computed using equations (1) and (2). Where MPi is the quantity of MPs in sample i while
MPb is the minimum baseline concentration taken from the lowest MPs abundance recorded in the study of
Mason et al., [8] as it shares similar environments and analytical context as this study.

MPCF = MPi/MPb …………………………………….(1)

MPi = quantity of MPs in ith sample; MPb = the minimum baseline concentration taken from the lowest MPs
abundance recorded in the study of Verla et al., (2019) which has similar environment and analytical context
as this study.

MPPLI = (MPCF1× MPCF2 × MPCF3….MPCFn)1/n …………………………(2)

The MPCfs were categorized according to (Verla et al., 2019). Values with MPCf < 1 are low contamination,
1≤ MPCf < 3 are moderately contaminated, 3 ≤ MPCf ≤ 6 are considerably contaminated and MPCf ≥ 6 very
highly contaminated.

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Estimated Daily Intake:

An individual risk pathway as a result of human exposure to microplastic contamination of drinking water could
be through oral ingestion Aliyu et al., [1]. Therefore, the estimated daily intake (EDI) due to exposure to
overall MPs resulting from ingestion of contaminated water is determined using equation 3.

EDI = MPI × RI/ Bw………………………………….…………………………(3)

EDI = estimated daily intake of MPs based on quantity through ingestion of the drinking water (particle/L/Bw-
day)

MPi = average quantity of the MPs in drinking water (MP particle/L)

RI = ingestion rate (2.2 L/day for adults; 1.8 L/day for children)

Bw = average body weight (70 kg for adults; 15 kg for children)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was conducted to ascertain the functional groups
present in the sample under investigation [9]. The FTIR works on the principle that the molecule vibrates at
specified frequencies and ranges from 200 cm-1 to 4000 cm-1 which falls within the IR portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum. When an IR is incident on a sample, it absorbs radiation at a frequency similar to its
molecular vibration frequency and transmits other frequencies. The infrared spectrometer detects the
frequencies of absorbed vibrations, and a plot of absorbed energy against the infrared spectrum is obtained. The
table below shows the results obtained from the infrared spectrum of the studied samples. From the FTIR
results of the analysis carried out on the bottled water samples, the absorption peak of sample SA were 1640,
2117 and 3265 cm-1; SB: 1192, 1640, 2124, 3265; SC: 2035, 2146, 2236, 2333, 3227, 3667, 3734, 3816; SD:
1640, 2117, 3265; SE: 1640, 2124, 3265 cm-1 and SF: 1640, 2117, 3265 cm-1. There were three absorption
peaks each of samples SA, SE and SF with corresponding functional group C=C, C=O , O-H while sample SC
which had eight absorption peaks with a functional group C-O, C=C, �� ≡ ��, O-H.

Samples Polymer Type Absorbance

Peak (cm-1 )

Functional Group

SA PE, PET

1640, 2117, 3265 C=C, C=O , O-H

SB PE, PET

1192, 1640, 2124, 3265 C=C, C=O, O-H

SC PE, PET, PVC 2035, 2146, 2236, 2333, 3227, 3667, 3734, 3816 C-O, C=C, �� ≡ ��,

O-H

SD PE, PET

1640, 2117, 3265 C=C, C=O, O-H

SE PE, PET

1640, 2124, 3265 C=C, C=O , O-H

SF PE, PET

1640, 2117, 3265 C=C, C=O, O-H

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The studied samples were all absorbed at 1640 cm-1 while other absorption peaks varied. The IR result
obtained by [11] in plastic bottled water showed strong peaks at 2916 cm-1, 2846 cm-1, and 2914 cm-1 showing
C-H stretch, CH2 bend at the peak of 1466 cm-1, 1462 cm-1 and 1747 cm-1 indicating C=O, while 1241 cm-1,
1035 cm-1 indicate C-O bond stretching. The results were applicable to what was obtained in sample SA, SB,
SC, SD and SF of this study. Kusa and Joshua in their study obtained 2920 cm-1, and 2850 cm-1 to show C-H
bond stretching vibration [10]. The presence of a peak at 2035, 2146, 2236 cm-1 in sample SC corresponding to
C-O stretching vibration indicates the presence of ester groups. This suggests that the plastic identified in the
sample may be composed of polyester materials which are commonly used in the production of various plastic
products including packaging materials [11]. Furthermore, the detection of peaks at 2117 cm-1, 2035 cm-1,
2124 cm-1 and in a l l s a c h e t water samples is an indication of the presence of C=O bond stretching
vibration pointing toward the presence of carbonyl groups in the polymer and the presence of 1192 cm-1 and
1640 cm-1 in sample SA, SD and SF and all other samples respectively represent C=C bond of an aromatic. These
C- O and C=C arid maybe associated with plastic like polyethylene terephthalate (PET), mostly used
materials for the manufacturing of beverage bottles and food containers. More so, the identification of peaks at
3265 cm-1, 3667 cm-1, 3734 cm-1, and 3816 cm-1 in all Samples and mostly in SC correspond to O-H stretching
vibration, suggesting the presence of a hydroxyl group in the sample. This O-H can be attributed to the
additive or surface modification applied to the plastic materials. In the determination of micro-plastic in water
samples in various other studies, the most frequently identified plastics were PE, PET, PP, PS, and
PVC[1].This is similar to the PE, PET, and PVC obtained in this study.

Table 2. Results of SEM characterization of MPs in the Bottled Water Samples

Samples Brand
Location

Microplastics
Composition

Particle
Size

Shape

SA PE, PET, PVC 32.0 Granules

SB PE, PET, PVC 36.2 Granules

SC PE, PET, PVC 64.1 Granules

SD PE, PET, PVC 41.4 Granules

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SE PE, PET, PVC 39.1 Granules

SF PE, PET, PVC 38.5 Granules

Scanning Electron Microscope and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy Result

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) is a technique used in obtaining the surface morphology of a substance by
scanning the surface of the material to create a high-resolution image [9]. The resulting image gives detailed
information about the object and its physical characteristics while Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS)
gives information about the elemental composition of the substance under investigation[8-9]. The table 2 above
shows the result of SEM obtained from the studied sachet water samples of SA to SF. The table showed the
particle size of the sample ranged from 32.0 particle/0.75L sample SA to 64.1 particle/0.75L sample SF. The MPs
types detected were polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) while
granules were the predominant shape of MPs obtained.

However, table 3 below shows the result of the health risk assessment of the microplastics in sachet water
samples. The micro-plastic pollution load index (MPPLI), micro-plastic contamination factor (MPCF), and
estimated of daily intake (EDI) were determined as well. The MPCF values ranged from 1.00 for sample SA to
2.00 for sample SC and followed the profile, SA˂ SB˂SF˂SE˂SD˂SC .The EDI values of the samples were
evaluated for both adults and children. The EDI values of all samples for adults were slightly greater than 1 which
is an indication of a moderate daily intake of MPs suggesting that daily consumption may be moderately risky
except for sample SC showed 2.00 EDI in adults which is high daily intake and may be high risk[11]

Health Risk Assessment of MPs in Sachet Water Samples

Table 3. Estimated Daily Intake of Microplastics in Sampled Sachet Water

Samples MPCF Estimated Daily Intake

Adult Child

SA 1.00 1.13 3.84

SB 1.13 1.14 4.34

SC 2.00 2.01 7.69

SD 1.29 1.30 4.97

SE 1.22 1.23 4.69

SF 1.20 1.21 4.62

MPLLI = 1.28

However, the EDIs for children ranged from 3.84 in sample SA to 7.6 9 in sample SC. This is an indication
that children consume more MPs than adults. This result is in agreement with the study of Kusa and Joshua
[7], that the EDI for children is always higher compared to that of adults. From the results, it is obvious that
children are more likely to consume MPs beyond the threshold level than adults. However, there is no backing
evidence of the danger of MP consumption to human health. The MPPLI was calculated to be 1.27 which is
lower than what was obtained by Aliyu et al., [1]. Also, Figure 2 below showed that micro-plastic are more
abundant in the sachet water samples in SC and exposure is more significant among the consumers of the samples
compared to other samples investigated. The lowest levels of MP in the sachet water samples was found in
samples SA.

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Fig. 2. Daily Intake of Microplastics particles in Adult and Child

Table 4. Microplastic Contamination Factors and Pollution Load Index in Sachet Water

Samples MPCF Risk Category

SA 1.00 Moderately Contaminated

SB 1.13 Moderately Contaminated

SC 2.00 Moderately Contaminated

SD 1.29 Moderately Contaminated

SE 1.22 Moderately Contaminated

SF 1.20 Moderately Contaminated

CONCLUSION

The result obtained showed the presence of polymers. The IR result from the analysis of the Sachet samples
showed the presence of polymers like PE, PET, and PVC. The microplastic shape was granules from the
surface morphology of the SEM results conducted. The EDI for Children was higher than the adults. This is an
indication that children are more susceptible to Microplastic infiltration than adults. As water is life to both
plants and animals it is detrimental and life threatening when polluted form of water is ingested. Regulatory
monitoring, stricter packaging standards and penalties for non-compliance and should be adopted, also Public
health campaigns could be proposed to educate consumers about safer storage practices, such as avoiding UV
exposure. Finally future studies might integrate biological assays to examine the physiological impacts of
detected Microplastic levels, strengthening the connection between environmental exposure and human health
outcomes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The researchers wish to acknowledge the effort of Management of Federal College of Education Katsina (FCE,
Katsina) in funding this research and immense support through the mother funding body, Tertiary Education
Trust Fund, Nigeria (TETFUND).

Conflict Of Interest

There is no conflict of interest during the course of this research.

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Samples IDs

Estimated Daily Intake
Adult

Estimated Daily Intake
Child

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