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The Sociolinguistic Implications of Gendered Language in Hausa and
Gender-Neutrality in Yoruba
SHUAIBU Abdulwaheed, PhD
Adeyemi Federal University of Education, Ondo
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000112
Received: 06 October 2025; Accepted: 14 October 2025; Published: 05 November 2025
ABSTRACT
Language is an important tool that builds social codes and forms perceptions of gender. In this research, we
consider the existence of gendered language in the Hausa and Yoruba language in terms of pronouns,
occupational names, kinship terms and social terms. Being a Chadic language, Hausa has direct gender
differences, in which pronouns shi (he) and ita (she) are used, as well as gendered terms of respect, like Alhaji
and Hajiya, which solidify patriarchal social frameworks. Male domination is even perpetuated by proverbs and
folklore. On the other hand, Yoruba, a south western Nigerian Kwa language has neuter pronouns like oun or o
(he/she) and inclusive terms of occupation and kinship, which promote linguistic and social equality. With the
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis and Social Constructionist Theory of Gender serving as the context, the researcher
demonstrated that Hausa language does retain rigid gender roles, but Yoruba does not. It comes up with the
conclusion that language forms affect educational practices, policy-making and media representation. The paper
proposes gender-sensitive reforms in language, inclusive education, and equal media coverage as the appropriate
measures to ensure equality in gender-language societies. Future researches may investigate the dialectal
differences and social classes in order to have a more insight into the language influence in shaping gender
identities and behaviors.
Keywords: Gendered Language, Hausa and Yoruba, Linguistic Equality, Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, Social
Constructionist Theory
INTRODUCTION
The values and ideologies along with the societal norms are passed on by the use of language as its primary
conveyance medium. The means by which language defines gender have a very strong effect on social
interactions and cultural perceptions. The systems of languages used in different parts of the world exhibit gender
manifestations due to the different category of genders found in some languages and gender equity in others.
Language differences between Hausa and Yoruba are very significant as major Nigeria speech communities.
The Hausa grammatical gender system is a member of the Afroasiatic, whereas the Yoruba language system
does not have any language rules of such kind and follows the Niger-Congo linguistic complex. The
sociolinguistic implications of this difference in the two languages are significant and affect the social behavior
through the norms, patterns of speech, and roles according to gender.
The physical expressions at language use, involve having distinct forms to indicate masculine and feminine
forms in forms of pronouns, nouns, and verb agreement (Eckert and McConnell-Ginet, 2013). The Hausa
language is gendered and comprises of distinct pronouns and gender-based nouns and adjectives, whereby shi is
used to mean he and ita is used to signify she. According to Aikhenvald (2018), the Yoruba language does not
have markings denoting gender differences in grammar. The language employs a gender-neutral pronoun o,
which does not change the references to all persons regardless of gender differences. Yoruba therefore remains
neutral with its grammar which is a cultural mentality that does not define social roles using speech unlike Hausa
which uses the gender-filtered linguistic elements.
Lakoff (1975) discovered a high sociolinguistic implication between such variations of language. As a gendered
language, Hausa relies on the linguistic expression to impose gender stereotypes in the society and support
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gender roles. These gender indicators which are inherent are capable of perpetrating gender stereotyping in social
interactions in most cases without one realizing it. Conversely, the Yoruba system of grammar that is gender-
neutral suggests an egalitarian perspective of the gender roles that are manifested at the intersection of the
linguistic form. Current studies are still going on to investigate whether the linguistic apathy between the sexes
results in the true social equality in action. The linguistic gender markers influence the way the societies define
gender and therefore Sapir (1921) and Whorf (1956) argue that language affects thought processes by influencing
how the society defines gender.
Gender imbalances are also evidenced through education, literature and media which according to researchers
are because of gendered language systems. Strong grammatical gender markers in spoken languages will result
in the formation and reinvention of traditional forms of gender roles that influence the perception of male-
females relations (Boroditsky, 2009). The linguistic dissimilarity between male and female elements of the
Hausa society supports the power of men in leadership, career, and household decisions. However, Yoruba, due
to its non-gender language structure, offers an avenue through which gender biasness can be minimized in daily
communication.
This paper discusses the way, in which the usage of gender-based linguistic patterns in Hausa affects
sociolinguistics and the application of gender-inclusive terms in Yoruba. It assesses gender perceptions and
social categories via the linguistic, cultural and societal models besides assessing the regional dialect differences
in Hausa and Yoruba to identify the minor subtleties in gender expression. Moreover, the research incorporates
participant views on a variety of social classes and ages to offer more information about the role of linguistic
structures on gendered behavior and social standards. Lastly, it examines some practical remedies, i.e., language
reform, education programs, and media coverage, to foster gender equality in gendered language societies. These
extensive discussions will help the research advance the African linguistic and sociolinguistic knowledge of
language and gender.
Aim of the Study
This study examines sociolinguistic features of Hausa a gendered language and Yoruba a gender-neutral
language and how they respectively affect gender perceptions, social patterns, and communication processes
among their speech communities.
Objectives of the Study
To explore the structure factors which distinguish gender among Hausa and gender-neutral factors among
Yoruba.
To examine the role of sociocultural factors in influencing the aspects of gendered language in Hausa
and Yoruba is devoid of such linguistic forms of gender.
To compare the effects of gendered language characteristics and gender-neutral words on social gender
relations and sociocultural judgments in Hausa and Yoruba-speaking societies.
To determine the effect of language differences based on gender in determining social equality, gender
roles, and daily interaction patterns in both societies.
To suggest the potential interventions, including language reform, educational policies, and media
representation, to ensure gender balance via the linguistic practice.
METHODOLOGY
The research design used is a qualitative research design that incorporates comparative linguistic study and
sociolinguistic analysis to explore gender differentiation in Hausa language and gender neutrality in Yoruba
language.
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The data is gathered by means of literature review of works on language and gender by scholars; the interviews
with linguists and teachers, and focus-group discussions with the native Hausa and Yoruba speakers. Other
sources are proverbs, folktales, media productions, and literary texts which are examined in order to determine
and determine symbolization of gender in the language and cultural context.
In analyzing the data, the study uses comparative linguistic analysis in determining and assessing the gender
markers in Hausa and their lack in Yoruba. Interpretation Interpretation of interview and focus group responses
is done through the use of thematic analysis, whereas media and everyday speech is analyzed through discourse
analysis to gain insight into how gender is linguistically constructed and expressed.
Even though the study involves speakers in Nigeria, there are some limitations that can limit the study scope,
including regional language variations and the availability of historical materials of the language. Nevertheless,
the study also offers a lot of details concerning the impact of linguistic gender modelling on the societal attitudes,
communicative behaviours, and the sociolinguistic development of the two language communities.
Theoretical Framework
The study is grounded in two significant theories that are the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (Linguistic Relativity)
and the Social Constructionist Theory of Gender.
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (Whorf, 1956) is based on the idea that language is a determinant of perception
and thinking and that it determines the ways people perceive and interpret reality. In this context, gendered
qualities of Hausa language are considered as language resources that maintain and strengthen gender roles in
social places. On the other hand, the grammatical neutrality of the Yoruba language will tend to promote the
lenient kind of gender norms and social relation as a language environment that imposes no gender differentiation
in the way of thinking and interacting.
The Social Constructionist Theory of Gender according to Butler (1990) is the view that gender is not a definite
biological characteristic but a social category that is influenced by cultural practices, discourse, and language.
Gender identities and expectations are carried out and embedded in language, which is one of the main avenues
of performing it. With its gender-based linguistic identifiers, Hausa is associated with the preservation of the
gender hierarchies, whereas the gender-free system of the Yoruba language is associated with the presumption
of a more inclusive and egalitarian focus when communicating through language.
Through a combination of the two theoretical frameworks, the paper will consider the effects of linguistic
patterns in Hausa and Yoruba on cultural understandings of gender as well as how patterns of language can
reinforce traditional social roles among the Hausa and Yoruba communities.
Gender importance in Hausa Language
There are specific characteristics of the Hausa language genders that not only affect the grammatical rules but
also the social relations and patterns of communication, as well as the creation of cultural identity. The Hausa
people have a society that is based on the traditional gender roles in contrast to Yoruba because unlike Yoruba,
speakers do not require any linguistic means to distinguish between male and female groups, and rather use
explicit linguistic indicators that place distinct gender markers. Eckert and McConnell-Ginet (2013) believe that
this type of linguistic division influences the way people interact with each other and supports the social
expectations, thus, playing a part in the creation of gender in the Hausa-speaking community.
Hausa possesses grammatical gender as a characteristic of its language. Hausa, being one of the typologically
gendered languages, has the pronouns of both male and female subjects, shi, meaning he, and ita, meaning she
(Newman, 2000). This gender categorization is not limited to the personal pronouns but also to some adjectives
and verb conjugation (Aikhenvald, 2018), and one could say that the categorization of genders is an inseparable
part of the description and the action. Ordinary languages in this way support gender identities and lead to
preservation of social hierarchies in Hausa speaking contexts.
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In Hausa society, social and cultural set ups are very much interwoven with the gendered language forms. Gender
markers are explicit in titles, professions and in kinship terms where such a distinction serves to respect the
division of roles between men and women in traditional leadership and religious institutions (Jaggar, 2001). As
Zima (2007) notes, Hausa uses gender related forms to communicate respect, hierarchy and social status.
These patterns of speech support gendered social roles and expectations, which Ibrahim (2014) elaborates by
stating that gendered patterns of speech reveal gender difference, to support the traditional concept of masculinity
that is associated with leadership and the femininity that is associated with domesticity. This is in accordance
with Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (1956), that is, linguistic structures determine perception and social conduct.
Hausa lexicon also has gender bias in terms of education and media. Olaoye (2013) notes that children are raised
with gender norms that are strengthened in their early learning materials, storytelling traditions, and through
media representations, which lead to the embedded social-accepted ideas about the role of males and females.
Gendered expectations are passed down through such language and narrative practices, which are common in
Hausa language and culture.
Finally, gender separation in the Hausa language is a critical sociocultural component, which determines identity,
communication and perception. Gendered forms of linguistic use at the same time allow the continuity of the
culture and suggest thinking about the aspects of equality and social change in Hausa-speaking communities.
The Gender Usage in Hausa Analysis Shows That There Was a Difference That Was Not Found in the
Non-Gender-Specific Yoruba System
Hausa and Yoruba languages have striking differences in the way they treat gender. Hausa is a language that is
gendered, i.e. distinguishes between masculine and feminine in pronouns, nouns, and some adjectives (Newman,
2000). Contrastingly, Bamgbose (1966) recognizes Yoruba as a gender-free language, and the language can
employ the same linguistic forms to refer to each gender.
1. Pronouns
Specialized third person singular pronouns are used in Hausa to indicate gender difference (Jaggar, 2001):
shi (he) vs. ita (she)
su (they – for both genders)
The Yoruba language does not allow pronouns to represent gender differences. According to Adegbite (2003),
the language has only one pronoun oun, which is used both in reference to both males and females.
2. Nouns and Titles
Newman (2000) demonstrates that Hausa differentiates gender through professional and social titles:
malam (male teacher) vs. malama (female teacher)
sarki (king) vs. sarauniya (queen)
Yoruba, on the other hand, is consistent when it comes to professional and titular reference. Gender is not an
issue in the form of titles as Bamgbose (1966) notes:
Olùkọ́ (teacher – applicable to both male and female)
Ọba (monarch – used for either a king or queen, depending on context)
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3. Adjectives and Agreement
Hausa adjectives can be gender-reflective when these adjectives are associated with pronouns or nouns:
Yaro mai ƙarfi (a strong boy) vs. Yarinya mai ƙarfi (a strong girl)
In Yoruba, adjectives are uniform and do not vary by gender:
Ọmọ tó lagbara (a strong child – applicable to both boys and girls)
4. Everyday Expressions
Gender differences are usually recognized in Hausa greetings and forms of addresses:
Ina wuni, Yallabai? (Good afternoon, sir) vs. Ina wuni, Hajiya? (Good afternoon, madam)
Greetings in Yoruba, on the contrary, are gender indifferent and acceptable to all:
Ẹ káàsán (Good afternoon) – used for both men and women.
Implications
Linguistic practices in Hausa reproduce historical social hierarchy between men and women because the patterns
of speech indicate and reify gender difference. These trends help to preserve gendered representations and
subordinating social relationships. Yoruba, though, shows linguistic inclusivity, having no gender markers that
allow communicating to facilitate the fluid gender roles and equal social participation. The difference between
the two language systems is used to highlight the effect of the structure of language on the way people in these
societies view gender, equality, and identity formation in their speech communities.
Hausa Language Gender Differentiation
Hausa, which is one of the major Chadic languages used most of the time in Northern Nigeria, has evident gender
distinctions, which are manifested in its language form. Hausa-speaking communities have traditionally assigned
social and cultural roles to men and women, which are evident in the verbs, the nouns, and adjectives of the
language as well as the pronouns and verbs (Newman, 2000; Jaggar, 2001). In this section, the researcher will
look at the language features that define gender in Hausa and how they affect the social communication trends.
1. Pronouns
Hausa language has explicit grammatical gender differences where the third-person pronouns are either
masculine or feminine. These variations are evident in the sentence structure:
shi (he) → Shi ne malami. (He is a teacher.)
ita (she) → Ita ce malama. (She is a teacher.)
The plural pronoun su is a gender-neutral pronoun. According to Newman (2000), su is used in all people
irrespective of their sex meaning that gender differentiation in Hausa is limited in dealing with the singular
forms.
2. Nouns and Titles
Hausa nouns and professional titles are usually manipulated to denote a male or female. Jaggar (2001) says, such
type of marking linguistic gender is characteristic of Afroasiatic languages. Examples include:
malam (male teacher) vs. malama (female teacher)
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ɗan sanda (policeman) vs. ’yar sanda (policewoman)
sarki (king) vs. sarauniya (queen)
According to Blench (2006), these differences not only mirror but also reinforce the social differences between
men and women in Hausa communities.
3. Adjectives and Agreement
Even though most adjectives in Hausa do not change according to gender, the adjectives have to agree with the
gender of the nouns.
Yaro mai ƙarfi (a strong boy) vs. Yarinya mai ƙarfi (a strong girl)
Mutum mai hankali (a sensible man) vs. Mace mai hankali (a sensible woman)
In these examples, the adjective has been constant, whereas gender variation is observed in the noun. This is
sharply different with Yoruba as Owomoyela (2005) reports that adjectives do not exhibit any form of changes
as a result of gender.
4. Verb Forms and Address Terms
Hausa also has gender-based words of address and some speech conventions that support gender division.
Yallabai (Sir) is used for men, while Hajiya (Madam) applies to women in both formal and social
interactions.
Such language practices, as Newman (2000) observes, reflect cultural practices which support gender
expectations in the Hausa-speaking community.
Generally, gender distinctions in the Hausa language indicate socio-hierarchical and customary value principles.
Hausa inscribes gender identities through the use of its pronouns, nouns and other forms of address that are
aligned with general cultural interpretations of identity and social structure. In contrast to Yoruba, which uses
grammars that are neutral, Hausa linguistics is persistent in the realization of visible gender boundaries that
influence the process of communication and cultural identity of the West African society.
The place of culture in linguistic gender markers in Hausa
The linguistic gender markers in Hausa are heavily determined by the cultural principles that are mixed with the
social systems. Newman (2000) and Jaggar (2001) stipulate that the language system of Hausa divides male and
female since the social roles and power structures and community expectations converge so as to form the Hausa
speaking societies.
Occupational Titles and Gender Roles
The conventional social roles of Hausa become manifested in the terms of the language differentiation which is
taken by masculine and feminine signs. The Hausa language has specific terms associated with professions and
status, which are obviously male or female.
Sarki (king) vs. Sarauniya (queen)
Malam (male teacher) vs. Malama (female teacher)
The head of the household named Maigida most often takes the male form but Uwar gida functions as
an occupational title referring to the female leader of a household.
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Bodomo (2019) confirms that this system of linguistic gender distinctions maintains traditional gender-based
leadership and responsibility assignments which also appear in various gendered languages.
2. Politeness and Social Hierarchy
Hausa culture emphasizes respect for social hierarchy according to Greenberg (1963) as well as Newman (2000)
which affects the use of gendered naming conventions throughout greetings and honorifics.
The terms Yallabai (Sir) and Hajiya (Madam) serve as respect markers for superior ranked male and
female individuals.
During interactions women receive their names followed by specific titles including Uwar ɗaki (Mother
of the house).
Language forms used in Hausa society strengthen cultural traditions which value elder respect as well as leader
authority and family systems (Jaggar, 2001).
3. Proverbs and Traditional Sayings
The Hausa community utilizes proverbs featuring gender roles to teach traditional values to members of society
according to Yahaya (1980) and Adamu (1999).
Mace ta zauna gida ya zauna (The stable condition of women produces a prosperous household
according to Hausa beliefs).
The expression Namiji shi ne ginshiƙin gida (A man is the pillar of the home) stands as a proverb that
confirms masculine home leadership.
Newman (2000) indicated how gendered language shows connections between cultural values and traditional
social systems.
4. Religion and Language Use
One fundamental part of Hausa culture is Islam that plays a strong role in creating language markers for gender-
based categories. Loimeier (2013) explains how particular religious words showcase designated roles according
to gender.
Liman (male imam) vs. Mace mai tafsiri (female Islamic scholar, but without the same religious authority
as a liman).
When delivering religious greetings in conversation men receive various prayers from women while
women receive differing types of blessings from men.
Gender-specific linguistic elements in Hausa language exist as physical manifestations of traditional Hausa
social standards. Both Newman (2000) and Jaggar (2001) define language as an instrument that reinforces social
structures together with traditional roles and religious values. The language use patterns in Hausa communities
maintain distinct gender aspects yet modernization together with globalization show signs of toning them down
(Bodomo, 2019).
Example and Analysis of Gendered Language in Hausa Society
The Hausa society expresses gendered language throughout its communication which grows out of traditional
social norms and historical background. Newman (2000) together with Jaggar (2001) explains that the linguistic
gender distinctions in Hausa language establish how language upholds social structures. An investigation of
gendered language in Hausa society includes the following examples combined with their analysis:
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1. Pronouns and Gender Differentiation
Shi ya tafi kasuwa (He went to the market.)
Ita ta tafi kasuwa (She went to the market.)
Su sun tafi kasuwa (They went to the market – gender-neutral plural.)
The Hausa language distinguishes between gender pronouns in the third person yet Yoruba and English lack
such gender-specific pronouns. The gender markers in Hausa pronunciation system strengthen sex-related
discrimination during everyday social interactions thereby stressing the divide between male and female
participants.
2. Gendered Occupational Titles
Malam (Male teacher) vs. Malama (Female teacher)
Sarki (King) vs. Sarauniya (Queen)
Ma’aikaci (Male worker) vs. Ma’aikaciya (Female worker)
The professional leadership titles within Hausa society show gender differences through separate forms for men
and women which mirror traditional gender norms among Hausa communities. The traditional separation in
work tasks between genders indicates how women received limited professional opportunities compared to men
who held most authority positions throughout history.
3. Greetings and Honorifics
Ina wuni, Yallabai? (Good afternoon, sir.)
Ina wuni, Hajiya? (Good afternoon, madam.)
Allah ya ƙara maka lafiya (May God grant you more health – said to a man.)
Allah ya ƙara miki lafiya (May God grant you more health – said to a woman.)
Social hierarchy and respect get priority within the gendered Hausa honorific system and greetings structure.
Professional relationships in the Hausa society require men to accept Yallabai (sir) while women are addressed
as Hajiya (madam). Everyday communication in Hausa society shows distinct gender differences through
blessings which employ ƙara maka/miki lafiya.
4. Proverbs and Gender Expectations
Namiji shi ne ginshiƙin gida (A man is the pillar of the home.)
Mace ta zauna, gida ya zauna (When a woman is stable, the household is stable.)
Mace kamar kaza ce, idan ta yi yawa a gari, ta fi sauƙin samu (A woman is like a chicken; if there are
too many, they become easy to get.)
In Hausa traditional wisdom gender expectations of the community become clearly visible through its proverbial
expressions. The first two proverbs demonstrate how men and women work together to maintain household
stability. The third proverb upholds patriarchal attitudes because it suggests that women lose value when they
have numerous children though these outdated beliefs exist during contemporary times of gender equality
advocacy.
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5. Religious and Cultural Influence on Gendered Language
Liman (Male Islamic leader) vs. Mace mai tafsiri (Female Islamic scholar, with less authority than a male
liman.)
The term Uwar gida serves as a respectful way to address women who occupy the position of home lead.
The language gaps in Hausa society emerge mostly from religious influences especially from Islamic teachings.
Spiritual titles which recognize religious leadership preferences identify males above females in religious
authority structures and show women predominantly support roles. The uwar gida title demonstrates how
married women earn social respect in the residence while excluding them from public spheres besides home
duties.
Hausa culture together with social dynamics and religious guidelines has developed a profound system which
employs masculine and feminine language practices. The changing dynamics of modernization and gender
equality have started to influence how language is used yet gender-specific occupational terms and expressions
in greetings and proverbs indicate that language continues to shape and reinforce societal gender perspectives in
Hausa communities (Newman 2000; Salihu 2017).
Neutrality of Gender in Yoruba Language
Contrary to the Hausa language, Yoruba has high gender-neutral traits because without pronouns, nouns,
adjectives, or verb forms that indicate masculinity or femininity (Aikoye, 2018). Yoruba is a language that lacks
grammatical gender in its daily use, which is one of the cultural systems where male and female social roles
were open to each other and regarded as complementary, as opposed to being separated.
1. Pronouns and Gender Neutrality
Yoruba employs identical pronouns for both male and female references.
• Ó lọ sí ilé-ìwé (He/She went to school.)
• Wọ́n wá sí ibi iṣẹ́ (They came to work.)
The third-person singular o pronoun applies to both sexes, which is different to Hausa shi (he) and ita (she). The
use of uniforms in the pronouns of the Yoruba language make it gender biased free and demonstrates an equal
based grammatical composition in the language.
2. Occupations and Titles
Yoruba occupational and leadership titles are equally applied to both men and women.
• Olùkọ́ (teacher – male or female)
• Dókítà (doctor – no gender distinction)
• Ọba (ruler – regardless of gender)
According to Yahaya (2006), Hausa draws a line between masculine and feminine (e.g., malam/malama,
sarki/sarauniya), yet Yoruba working words are not exclusive, and they balance genders.
3. Adjectives and Verbs
The Yoruba language does not distinguish between adjectives and verbs according to gender.
• Ọmọ tó dára (a good child – applies to boys and girls)
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• Ẹni tó lagbara (a strong person – gender-neutral)
• Ó ti dé (He/She has arrived)
According to Fagborun (1994) this lack of grammatical gender creates an inclusive form of communication as
opposed to Hausa where agreement may change depending on the gender of the noun.
4. Greetings and Honorifics
Greetings among the Yoruba are respectful and seniority-focused instead of gender.
• E káàsán (Good afternoon – for both men and women)
• Báwo ni? (How are you? – gender-neutral)
Balogun (2004) states that Hausa identifies Yallabai (sir) and Hajiya (madam), whereas the Yoruba greetings do
not carry gender, but rather courtesy and hierarchy.
5. Proverbs and Cultural Views on Gender
Yoruba proverbs share cultural wisdom without gender.
• Àkùkọ́ kọ́ ògèdè kú (The rooster crows and the banana dies – actions have consequences, not gendered)
• Ohun tí a bá fi owó ra, a máa fi ẹsẹ̀ dẹ̀ (What we buy with money, we do not treat carelessly – applies to all
people)
In comparison with Hausa proverbs, which tend to strengthen patriarchal values, Yoruba proverbs propagate
moral values and collective responsibility without dividing into male and female.
All in all, Yoruba linguistic frameworks support a non-gender orientation that builds on inclusiveness and
flexibility. The feminine and male identities have a common linguistic zone with their identical pronouns, job
titles and adjectives. Yoruba linguistic neutrality as Ajiboye (2011) points out implies the cultural ideals that
divide social functions and linguistic limits so that roles could be bargained out in context, not according to
grammatical category.
Sociolinguistic Consequences of Gender Distinctions in Hausa and Gender Neutrality in Yoruba
The linguistic systems adopted by communities have a profound impact on social norms, identity and power
relations that prevail in communities. Hausa language has the gender markers incorporated in grammatical and
lexical structures, whereas Yoruba has a gender-neutral language structure. Such structural differences have a
great influence on societal attitudes toward gender roles, etiquette, work thoughts, and personal identity (Holmes,
2013; Romaine, 2000).
1. Gender and Social Hierarchy
The social hierarchies of Hausa are supported by the language differentiation of the gendered pronouns and
nouns (Eckert and McConnell-Ginet, 2013).
• Shi ya tafi kasuwa – He went to the market.
• Ita ta tafi kasuwa – She went to the market.
By comparison, the Yoruba pronouns are gender-neutral:
• Ó lọ sí ọjà – He/She went to the market.
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Aikhenvald (2016) notes that language neutrality of Yoruba allows social flexibility in interpretation of roles
with gender differences being less important in everyday language.
2. Gender and Occupational Perception
The use of gender-specific professionalities in Hausa, including Malami (male teacher) and Malama (female
teacher) continues to hold on to the traditional perceptions of the suitability of occupations. As Jakiela and Ozier
(2018) argue, gendered language systems shape the beliefs in society that there are certain occupations associated
with both sexes. On the other hand, Yoruba like titles like Olùkọ́ (teacher) are gender neutral with the aim of
creating equal perceptions on male and female engagement in professional arenas.
3. Power, Courtesy, and Social Status
Gender-based honorifics Yallabai (Sir) and Hajiya (Madam) are used by Hausa speakers, which refer to the
respect and separation of social groups (Meyerhoff, 2015). However, Yoruba is based on kinship and delineation
of age like Bàbá (father/ elder man) and Ìyá (mother/ elder woman) that is founded on social precedence and not
gender privilege (Adegbite, 2016). This trend is consistent with Yoruba sociocultural beliefs according to which
respect is attributed mostly to age and status, and not gender, thus creating an egalitarian social interaction.
4. Language and Gender Identity
Zimman (2017) observes that non-binary or gender-fluid individuals might face challenges in expressing identity
in gender-marked languages, including Hausa, which do not have inclusive systems of pronouns. The Yoruba,
through its universal pronoun O, enables and encourages other types of gender while also facilitating self-
expression (Boroditsky, 2011). This inclusivity shows how linguistic non-partisanship helps in having a wider
gender representation and psychological comfort during communication.
5. Transmission of Gender Norms through Proverbs and Culture
Traditional gender ideologies are preserved in Hausa proverbs:
• Namiji shi ne ginshiƙin gida – A man is the pillar of the home.
• Mace ta zauna, gida ya zauna – When a woman is stable, the household is stable.
Gendered expectations are maintained through such expressions and affirm patriarchal values. Conversely, the
Yoruba proverbs use neutral tones and are communal in their contexts:
• Ohun tí a bá fi owó ra, a máa fi ẹsẹ̀ dẹ̀ – What we buy with money, we do not treat carelessly.
Corbett (2013) argues that language systems that have few gender distinctions have more equal gender relations.
On the whole, gendered social organization in Hausa lingo is ensured by language distinction in the use of
pronouns, titles, and greetings, whereas in Yoruba, social linguistics is neutral, promoting gender autonomy.
Language, as Romaine (2000) concludes, is both an indicator and maker of social reality, and as such, the
occupation of certain gender roles, occupational chance, and status of respect is greatly influenced by the
linguistic design.
Cultural and Historical Factors Influencing Gender Differentiation in Hausa and Gender Neutrality in
Yoruba
Language is regarded as a cultural warehouse, which is a product of the historical and social framework of the
individuals who speak it. Hausa language has a pronounced gender division, and Yoruba language is mostly
gender-neutral this is based on the historical and cultural development of both cultures. These language
differences have developed over centuries of exposure to religion, governments, economical systems and
colonialism (Eckert and McConnell-Ginet, 2013; Romaine, 2000).
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1. Influence of Islamic Civilization on Hausa Gendered Language
The influence of Islamic civilization on the Hausa society can be seen until the fourteenth century, which
influenced the civilization and the language structures of the Hausa. Last (1988) argues that Islam came to be a
powerful ideological and sociopolitical movement that characterized the Hausa patterns of social order and
communication. Brockett (1997) observes that gender differences were institutionalized in Hausa language use
by Islamic scholarship and introduction of Arabic script (Ajami) in the Hausa language as Malam (male scholar)
and Malama (female scholar).
Other titles including the Alhaji and the Hajiya which refers to the men and women who have completed the
Hajj pilgrimage also indicate this language conformity to Islamic standards. These Arabic-inspired formations
of gender have now been incorporated into Hausa identity, and as Owens (1998) notes, this strengthens binary
gender identity in both the speech and social practice.
2. Pre-Colonial Political and Social Structures
The pre-colonial Hausa polities especially the Sokoto caliphate was based on centralized monarchies which
retained political and religious leadership to men. Male rulers (Sarakuna) and officials (Waziri, Galadima) ruled
the system and a culture of patriarchal communicative culture that favored male power was formed. This political
monopoly was manifested in language in the form of gender-specific titles and sayings to the superiority of men.
In comparison, the Yoruba political institutions were more liberal and featured prominent women like Moremi
Ajasoro and Efunsetan Aniwura (Akintoye, 2010). This is because, in the Yoruba language, the neutral word
Oba is used to refer to both male and female rulers unlike Hausa where there is a difference between Sarki (king)
and Sarauniya (queen). This language neutrality is a reflection of the fairly open sociopolitical system of Yoruba,
which in the past gave women an influential presence in the community.
3. Gender Roles in Traditional Economic Activities
The Hausa traditional society had well defined divisions of labour. Man was also usually involved in trade,
religious studies and politics whereas women were restricted to home based chores or the unofficial market
(Callaway, 1987). These two economic terminologies are emphasized by Bagari (2005), in which marital and
gendered labour is defined as Miji and Mata, and gender specific economic involvement is denoted as Sana’a
and Kasuwanci.
On the other hand, the Yoruba community was more economically fluid. Women tended to take up leadership
roles in market networks like the Iyaloja (market leader) and they were actively involved in long distance trade
(Sudarkasa, 1986). The egalitarian economic customs can be the reason why the Yoruba language system is
neutral gender-wise, and professional and job-related words do not carry gender connotations.
4. Colonialism and the influence on the perception of Gender and Language.
The colonial administration in Northern Nigeria (1900-1960) affirmed patriarchal structures in the region
through advancing and promoting male-dominated education and administration (Lugard, 1922). Introduction
of Western titles of bureaucratism entrenched the gender divisions that were already existing in Hausa society
which further entrenched language and occupation differences between men and women.
In the Yoruba areas, on the other hand, colonial policy found an established social structure in which women
already possessed access to trade, education, and leadership of the community. Consequently, colonialism failed
to impose gendered linguistic markers to Yoruba. The language also did not succumb to grammatical gender
differences prevalent in other colonial situations by retaining its neutral pronouns and professional titles.
5. Proverbs and Oral Traditions in the formation of gender perceptions.
Proverbs are cultural documents on which moral and social values are passed. The Hausa proverbs tend to uphold
male dominance as well as female domesticity by the following proverbs:
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• Namiji shi ne ginshiƙin gida – A man is the pillar of the home.
• Mace ta zauna, gida ya zauna – When a woman is stable, the household is stable.
These expressions indicate the patriarchal ideology and legitimize the male leadership idealism in Hausa culture.
Yoruba proverbs are however not usually gendered and tend to focus on community values and respect between
generations:
• Àgbà kì í wà l’ójà, k’òrè ó má bàjé – When elders are present, things do not go wrong.
• Kò sí bí a ṣe ṣe rẹ, ẹni tí ó bá gbé ilé ta, ó ti ta baba rẹ – Whoever sells the family home has sold his father.
The lack of gender division in these utterances implies that the Yoruba oral traditions put more emphasis on
social harmony rather than gender hierarchy.
To conclude, the Hausa language is gendered because it interacted with Islam throughout history, has a
centralized government, and has shrewd socio-economic segregations, which supported the dominance of
masculine rule. Yoruba, however, developed in a more equalized social structure that enabled women to be seen
in leadership, trade, and culture- some of the aspects that made it gender neutral in a language. These cultural
and historical contexts are crucial in the deciphering of the mechanisms of gender sociolinguistics in the African
languages.
Language Policy and Education Implication
The topic of gender representations in Hausa and Yoruba languages is the key to the development of language
policy and educational reform in Nigeria. Educationists and policy makers should understand the role of
language forms in gender equity, access to education, and assimilation into a country (Bamgbose, 1991;
Igboanusi, 2008).
1. Gender Sensitivity and Language Policy
The National Policy on Education in Nigeria ( Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2013) focuses on the application of
indigenous languages in early childhood education. The gendered nature of Hausa however brings some
challenges to the inclusive learning. Gender norms are usually reinforced in educational materials and classroom
relationships.
Indicatively, Hausa refers to maigida (head of household male) and uwargida (senior wife), whereas Yoruba
uses a gender-neutral olukuluku (individual). Masculine expressions are the dominant elements of Hausa official
discourse, and as such, they miss out on female learners.
In order to encourage inclusiveness, language policies are to be designed to use gender-sensitive expressions and
persuade the use of gender-neutral terminologies continuously. It is important to eliminate linguistic bias in
Hausa so as to enjoy equal access to education and that gender balance in the development of the curriculum and
teacher communication.
2. Challenges in Curriculum Development and Teaching
Gender stereotypes are usually reproduced in Hausa-language educational contents, with men being leaders and
women being caregivers. Conversely, the fact that Yoruba uses the term oun to signify both he and she would
allow equal representation in the classroom.
Reform of curriculum should cover:
Checking textbooks to find out and delete gender prejudice.
Encouraging the use of neutral or inclusiveness in learning resources.
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Promoting gender roles and linguistic diversity discussions in the classes.
The teachers in the Hausa speaking areas are to demonstrate equality where they should use Malam and Malama
whereby they indicate both the male and female professionals. These practices will contribute to the destruction
of implicit gender hierarchies in language learning.
3. Training Teachers in Gender-Inclusive Language
Educators are very instrumental in influencing the linguistic and social awareness of the students. Social
distinctions are enforced through gendered greetings in Hausa-speaking classrooms like sannu da aiki Yallabai
(male) and sannu da aiki Hajiya (female).
The sociolinguistic materials teaching about the connection between language and gender should be incorporated
in teacher education. Training should focus on:
Detection and prevention of gender-biased language.
Replacing the use of gendered variations where necessary.
Raising student awareness with regard to gender identity and expectations in language.
In Yoruba speaking environments, the inherently gender neutral construct of language already facilitates
teaching gender inclusively, with a minimum of gender bias with no intentional language refor
4. Media and Public Speaking Language Policy
Media are effective tools of influencing gender perceptions in the society. The Hausa based media, including
Arewa24, have gender terms such as saurayi (young man) and budurwa (young woman), which further
strengthens social expectations (Newman, 2000). Compared to this, the Yoruba media discourse is rather gender-
neutral, since professional titles or pronouns have no gender indicators.
In order to foster a balanced and inclusive media policy, it should:
Issue editorial policies that support neutral or equal representation of sexes.
Make sure that such public messages portray equal professional roles of men and women.
Encourage linguistic innovation which is not only inclusive, but also does not change fundamental
cultural meanings.
5. Considerations of Multilingual Policies and National Integration
The gendered variations in language have a ramification on the multilingual national identity of Nigeria as well.
Another subtle appreciation of these language systems may lead to intercultural communication and even
national unity.
As an example, legal and educational texts should use gender-neutral equivalents in translating Hausa words
wanda (he who) and wacce (she who). The policymakers should understand that gender differences in languages
of Nigeria need specific approaches in terms of national planning.
The use of gender considerations in multilingual policy can facilitate equal presence in a wide range of different
languages.
To conclude, the implicit differences between the gender marked language system of Hausa and the gender
neutral system of Yoruba have significant ramifications to education and language planning in Nigeria. By
targeting gender bias in Hausa-language education, which will be achieved through policy change, teacher
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training, curriculum revision, and publishing in non-sexist media, gender equity will be achieved and national
integration reinforced. The option of adopting the inclusive language practices in Yoruba provides useful
example of enhancing equity and equality in the educational and sociolinguistic growth of Nigeria.
Findings of the Study
The findings of the research uncovered critical findings that were manifested across the linguistic and
sociolinguistic and educational sphere during the study of Hausa gender distinction and Yoruba gender-neutral
speech. According to these findings, gendered language has much influence on social roles along with
communication methods and education systems and policy-making processes in Nigeria.
1. The Hausa Language maintains strong separations between the female and the male elements
In Hausa language women and men are distinguished with the assistance of separate pronouns use and various
occupational names and family names besides social address typography. The existing disparities establish and
provide gender-based social functionalities within the community framework.
The Hausa language describes pronouns in terms of shi, which means male pronouns and ita, which
means female pronouns but however Yoruba language employs the same pronouns oun, which denotes
male and female pronouns.
There are no gender-specific occupational names in the Yoruba language as the job descriptions use the
independent male-female terms such as malami (adult man teacher) versus malama (adult woman
teacher) or oluko (teacher) and Hausa mostly differentiates between the genders by using the malami
(male teacher) versus malama (female teacher).
There is also a difference in the terms of kinship used as Hausa has specific terms to refer to elder brother
(yaya namiji) and elder sister (yaya mace) whereas Yoruba has language terms aburo (younger sibling)
and egbon (elder sibling) to refer to any sibling.
The linguistic constructions define how the communities perceive established gender rules in Hausa speaking
regions.
2. Yoruba Language encourages neutrality in communication between genders
The genderlessness of the Yoruba language forms a language which incorporates all genders in its language
usage.
The language has a single pronoun (oun), that cuts across the male and female sexes.
Gender-neutral terms are applied in the medical and educational fields via job titles that are dokita
(doctor) and oluko (teacher).
The Yoruba culture does not have gender-specific terminology and relationship of family members where
individuals can impose strict gender roles.
Linguistic neutrality encouragement of the use of language reduces traditional gender role reinforcement thereby
influencing the concept of gender equality within the Yoruba society.
3. The cultural context of society dictates the ways in which individuals use language which is gender
specific
The Hausa language male-female roles are based on the cultural-historical North Nigerian patterns that integrate
the Islamic teachings that embraced the male dominant power systems (Newman, 2000).
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The use of the words sarki meaning king and hakimi meaning head of the district prevail in the general
arguments as a way of asserting the dominance of males.
Although females do not have titles with them as males do, females do not have such titles when they
are married and do when they are not.
In the Yoruba culture women are the governors of the Ìyálọ́jà market and are given the title of Kingship as Ọba,
although both men and women are capable of taking over the leadership role.
4. Educational and Language policy implications
Hausa social conditions determine the development of educational content and classroom practice as well as
social perceptions of students regarding gender-based responsibilities.
Traditional male-preying narratives dominate the text and media content that uses the Hausa language.
The Yoruba origin of educational materials leads to inclusive representation of identities because the
language does not associate itself with any particular group or identity.
Educators teaching in the Hausa regions adopt gender-specific welcome terms between yallabai for
males and hajiya for females but teachers in Yoruba areas maintain neutral student-language (ẹ̀yin ọmọ
akẹ́kọ̀ọ́—students).
The data indicates that educational strategies using gender-specific approaches in Hausa-language teaching
programs would enhance educational equity.
5. Language and Gender Perceptions in Media and Public Discourse
Modern Hausa-language broadcast media constantly repeat and support the division between men and women.
Characters of both sexes maintain their typical roles throughout news media broadcasts and cinematic
roles.
In public speaking together with religious discourse through the Hausa language gender-specific terms
become prevalent which upholds social standards.
The Yoruba media framework shows balanced representation because it has no specified gender after its creators
built a neutral structure thus expanding possibilities to portray various gender-based roles.
The research discovered that Hausa uses language markers which uphold conventional gender norms yet Yoruba
lacks such distinctions and maintains an inclusive language system. Linguistic variations between Yoruba and
Hausa language create important consequences for education systems and national language policies together
with gender presentations in media and public discussions. The efforts to promote gender inclusion within
Hausa-speaking communities must specifically address language variables in educational settings along with
official and media transmission channels.
RECOMMENDATIONS
This research establishes proposals that work to battle gender distinctions in the Hausa language while increasing
gender equality in educational settings and governmental procedures and public interactions.
1. Promote Gender-Inclusive Language in Education
The review process of Hausa-language courses together with instructional materials should become a
responsibility of educational policymakers for eliminating gender bias and promoting gender inclusion.
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Educational staff in Hausa-speaking areas should receive training that enables them to choose gender-
neutral language when teaching while distributors need to maintain equivalent mentions of male and
female roles during academic conversations.
The development of new gender-neutral expressions should be encouraged in language initiatives by
following the example of the natural gender-neutral communication found in Yoruba speech.
2. Encourage Gender-Sensitive Language Policy
The Nigerian government and language planning agencies must revise current policies to develop gender-
neutral language expressions for official documents and educational materials and broadcast media in
Hausa.
Standardized translations of legal academic and professional terms should be created for Hausa language
to prevent gender marking in order to prevent the reinforcement of social inequalities.
The enforcement of education policies in various languages needs to embrace gender-specific linguistic
patterns across Nigeria's multiethnic territories to develop inclusive academic communication channels.
3. Media and communication channels should work together to increase popular recognition about this
issue.
Media institutions using the Hausa language should carry out balanced language expression to decrease
the reinforcement of conventional gender stereotypes in their broadcasting platforms.
Broadcasters and journalists along with scriptwriters should adopt either non-gender-specific
terminology or language which treats men and women equally when delivering news reports or crafting
their stories.
The impact of gendered language on societal roles should be known widely through awareness programs
that demonstrate Yoruba's equal treatment of genders as a model of unbiased language.
4. Research on sociolinguistics should become integrated into the development of language.
Research needs additional exploration regarding gendered language sociolinguistics in Hausa along with
its social effects on societal perceptions about gender.
Language policy reform needs studies which analyze gender representation techniques in Nigerian
languages outside Hausa along with Igbo for an expanded understanding of cultural perspectives within
Nigeria.
Linguists along with educators need to team up to collect emerging gender-neutral expressions found in
Hausa for analyzing their effectiveness in linguistic communication.
5. The development of both teacher training and curriculum development needs enhancement.
The training of Hausa-language teachers must include methods that build gender sensitivity as a
foundation for creating an inclusive learning environment with students through classroom activities.
Teachers should build gender and language diversity discussions into educational material for language
education to teach students about linguistic gender indicators.
Educational institutions that teach Hausa and Yoruba languages should implement exchange programs
which will create better communication and acceptance between students from both linguistic
backgrounds.
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Hausa-speaking communities should implement education-based media and policy reforms which focus on
utilizing language that respects gender equality. Through integration of Yoruba ways to avoid gender
specification Hausa language can transform its linguistic structure to fit modern social progress without
sacrificing its core elements. These guidelines establish a framework to boost equality between genders during
all forms of communication and public exchange.
CONCLUSION
The research indicates that Hausa reflects gender differences in its language form, whereas Yoruba exhibits
gender-neutral forms of grammar. Hausa preserves the gender roles by using the gender marked pronouns,
occupational titles and the kinship terms that have the ancient patriarchal and Islamic influences. In contrast to
this, the non-sexist language of Yoruba facilitates the inclusion of everyone in communicating and minimizes
gender prejudice by deleting the grammatical identities of gender in the language. These two contrasting systems
demonstrate the way in which language represents, as well as creates cultural values, with Hausa (traditional)
depicting divisions and Yoruba (more balanced) creating a more balanced social interaction.
The social implications of the linguistic differences of the two languages are far-reaching and evident in
education, the media and the language policy. Gendered language in Hausa speaking nations reinforces the male
centric thinking in classroom conversation, school text and cultural expression through media, whilst language
neutrality in Yoruba encourages equal participation and gender equality. As a result, policymakers, educators,
and media practitioners have a great need to implement gender sensitive reforms to enhance equality using
language.
The practical interventions that can be considered in the future, to promote gender equality in gendered language
societies, include language reforms, inclusive education interventions, and balanced media coverage as the future
research direction. In addition, the analysis of dialectical differences within a region in both Hausa and Yoruba
could reveal subtle manifestations of culture and gender. Lastly, a more complex approach that incorporates the
viewpoint of the participants of various age groups and social classes might give a more in-depth understanding
of how the structure of language predisposes individuals to exhibit everyday gendered practices and ways of
societal expectations.
With this sustained investigation, language can be a mirror of culture as well as an effective tool of advancing
equity, inclusivity and social change.
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