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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
The Intersection of Theology and Gender Equality in the Seventh-
Day Adventist Church: A Case Study from Malawi and Zambia
1Frank Barden Chirwa Ph.D., 2Christopher Kabwe Mukuka, Ph.D
1Adjunct Lecturer at Mzuzu University, Malawi
2Student, Lecturer at Rusangu University, Zambia
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000113
Received: 06 October 2025; Accepted: 14 October 2025; Published: 05 November 2025
ABSTRACT
This study critically examines the intersection of theology and gender equality within the Seventh-day Adventist
(SDA) Church in Malawi and Zambia. It highlights the disjunction between the church's theological affirmations
of gender equality, rooted in the biblical narrative of the Imago Dei, and the lived experiences of women who
face cultural subordination, violence, and marginalization. The research employs qualitative interviews and
document analysis to explore theological foundations, cultural practices, and contemporary challenges. Key
findings reveal the persistent gender injustices and the urgent need for the SDA Church to align its teachings
with the realities of its members. The study offers specific actionable recommendations, including the
establishment of leadership training programs for women and the implementation of educational initiatives that
promote gender equality and challenge harmful cultural practices. Ultimately, it calls for a transformative
approach that integrates theological reflection with practical action, positioning the SDA Church as a proactive
agent for gender justice and empowerment in African society.
Key Words: Marginalization, Gender Equality, Adventist theology, transactive, transformative
INTRODUCTION
The theology of human sexuality lies at the heart of Christian anthropology and informs how communities
interpret gender relations, leadership, and justice. In the context of the Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) Church,
this subject is both theological and practical, shaping the church’s stance on ministry, marriage, family, and
community life. Within Malawi and Zambia, these issues are particularly pronounced because the SDA Church
exists within patriarchal cultural frameworks where women often experience subordination, violence, and
marginalization (Phiri, 2020). A robust theology of sexuality rooted in the biblical narrative of creation and
supported by contemporary theological reflection offers a pathway toward justice and transformation.
The SDA Church historically affirms the biblical anthropology of the Imago Dei—that humanity, male and
female alike, reflects the divine image (Gen. 1:27; Gen. 5:1). Yet, the practical application of this theological
truth often collides with entrenched cultural practices such as lobola (bride-price), polygamy, and patriarchal
leadership structures. These tensions create a paradox: while Adventist theology proclaims the equal creation of
men and women, ecclesiastical practice in some African contexts continues to perpetuate inequality (Davids,
2023). The challenge, therefore, is to align theology with lived reality by embracing both the biblical witness
and contemporary insights into gender justice.
The SDA theological position on gender equality is firmly grounded in the biblical narrative of creation and
enriched by Ellen G. White’s contributions and contemporary theological reflection. This framework, when
contextualized within Malawi and Zambia, challenges the church to confront cultural practices that perpetuate
inequality and to embody a more inclusive vision of ministry. By affirming the equal creation of men and women,
the church not only strengthens its mission but also contributes to the broader struggle for justice and dignity in
African society.
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Statement of the Problem
The tension between theology and practice within the SDA Church in Malawi and Zambia reflects a broader
crisis faced by many faith communities navigating between biblical ideals and cultural realities. While Scripture
and Adventist theology affirm the equality of men and women as co-bearers of the image of God (Gen. 1:27; Gal.
3:28), the lived experiences of women in these contexts often tell a different story. Women continue to be
subjected to discriminatory practices in both church and society, revealing a dissonance between doctrinal
commitments and everyday realities (ADRA, 2021).
Cultural Patriarchy and Religion
Patriarchal structures dominate much of Malawian and Zambian culture, with traditions such as lobola,
inheritance practices, and gendered divisions of labor reinforcing male dominance (Phiri, 2020). These customs,
though deeply embedded in society, often conflict with the church’s teaching of mutual dignity and respect. For
instance, lobola, while traditionally understood as a gesture of appreciation to the bride’s family, is frequently
misused as a justification for controlling or even abusing wives. The SDA Church, while opposing polygamy
and overt gender oppression in principle, has at times failed to directly challenge these cultural patterns, resulting
in women being silenced or excluded from decision-making roles.
Violence and Abuse
Reports from ADRA (2021) and UN Women (2022) indicate a significant prevalence of gender-based violence
(GBV) in Malawi and Zambia. In some Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) communities, women have shared their
harrowing experiences of domestic violence, including battering and marital rape. Additionally, practices such
as ritual sexual cleansing following widowhood have been reported, which starkly contradict both biblical
teachings and fundamental human rights principles.
The church's response to these issues has often been reactive and transactional, focusing on immediate
interventions rather than proactive and transformative strategies. This approach has resulted in limited pastoral
support for addressing abuse and insufficient resources for helping survivors. There is a critical need for the
church to adopt a more comprehensive and compassionate response to GBV, prioritizing the safety and well-
being of women within its communities.
Economic and Social Disempowerment
The burden of poverty and illiteracy disproportionately affects women. In rural Malawi and Zambia, female
literacy rates lag behind those of men, limiting women’s opportunities for economic independence (World Bank,
2022). Migrant labor practices further complicate family dynamics, as men often leave for extended periods to
work in South Africa, leaving women vulnerable to exploitation, infidelity, or poverty. The intersection of these
socio-economic factors with patriarchal theology intensifies gender inequality.
Ecclesiastical Limitations
Within the SDA Church itself, debates on women’s ordination and leadership continue to polarize congregations
worldwide. While regions such as North America and parts of Europe affirm women’s ordination, African
Adventist communities, including Malawi and Zambia, tend to resist, often citing cultural or biblical headship
arguments (Kim, 2020). Consequently, women in these contexts are frequently relegated to auxiliary roles in
children’s or women’s ministries, while decision-making positions remain dominated by men. This perpetuates
a cycle of exclusion that undermines the theological truth of the Imago Dei.
Purpose of the Study
This study aims to critically examine the interplay between theological ideals and social realities regarding
gender equality within the SDA Church in Malawi and Zambia. By exploring the theology of human sexuality
as articulated through the doctrine of the Imago Dei, the research seeks to establish a framework that affirms the
equal partnership of men and women in God's mission. This framework will engage classical Protestant
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theologians and SDA thought leaders to challenge interpretations that sustain gender inequality, while
simultaneously uncovering the cultural, economic, and social dynamics that perpetuate such disparities.
Furthermore, the study will provide actionable insights for the SDA Church, advocating for structural reforms
in leadership and ministry that uphold women's dignity and contributions. By aligning this inquiry with global
discourses on gender justice, particularly in relation to Sustainable Development Goal 5, the research aspires to
position the SDA Church as a proactive agent for change, demonstrating that faith and theology can serve as
powerful allies in promoting justice and human flourishing for all.
Theological Foundations
Creation and the Image of God
The creation narrative in Genesis underscores the equality of male and female. Genesis 1:27 declares, “So God
created mankind in his own image; in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them.”
This foundational verse highlights that both genders are integral bearers of the divine image. Unlike hierarchical
readings that prioritize male headship, the Imago Dei affirms mutuality and partnership. Genesis 5:1 reiterates
this theological claim by recording that both men and women were created in God’s likeness, reinforcing equality
as God’s original design (Jewett, 1975).
The implications of this reading are profound. If both male and female equally manifest God’s image, then
systems of oppression, subordination, or exclusion of women contradict the divine intention. In the African
context, this calls the church to critique patriarchal traditions that marginalize women and to promote a relational
anthropology grounded in dignity and justice (Oduyoye, 1995).
Ellen G. White’s Contributions
Ellen G. White, a co-founder of the SDA Church, made significant contributions to the church’s theology of
human dignity and equality. In Education (1903), she stresses that both men and women are entrusted with God’s
image and called to live out their potential in service. White’s writings frequently affirm the indispensable role
of women in ministry, particularly in teaching, evangelism, and mission. She argued against narrow cultural
interpretations that restricted women, instead urging the church to recognize their divine calling (White, 1903).
For the SDA Church in Malawi and Zambia, White’s counsel provides theological legitimacy for greater
inclusion of women in leadership. Her vision of equality challenges churches to transcend cultural biases and
align with biblical truth. By integrating her writings with contemporary feminist and liberationist theologies, the
church can more effectively advocate for justice and inclusivity.
Contemporary Theological Interpretations
Emil Brunner and Karl Barth
Emil Brunner’s The Divine Imperative (1947) situates human sexuality within relational ethics. He contends
that male and female identities exist for one another, not in domination but in fellowship. Similarly, Karl Barth
in Church Dogmatics (1961/2004) emphasizes covenantal partnership between man and woman. For Barth,
genuine humanity is realized only in community, which necessarily involves equality between male and female.
These theologians challenge the church to resist patriarchal hierarchies that distort God’s design.
Helmut Thielicke
Helmut Thielicke’s The Ethics of Sex (1964) reflects on the rapidly changing gender roles of the twentieth
century. He acknowledges that sexuality is not merely biological but theological, shaping vocation and
community. Thielicke’s recognition of social shifts offers valuable insight for today’s African context, where
women increasingly engage in education, leadership, and economic activities. His writings affirm that theology
must respond to changing realities while remaining grounded in Scripture.
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Paul K. Jewett
Paul Jewett’s landmark work Man as Male and Female (1975) critiques traditional hierarchical readings of
gender roles. He argues that Galatians 3:28—“There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female,
for you are all one in Christ Jesus”—abolishes distinctions that promote inequality. For Jewett, subordination
contradicts the gospel’s liberating message. His perspective resonates in contexts like Malawi and Zambia, where
religious and cultural traditions often perpetuate the subjugation of women.
Implications for the SDA Church in Malawi and Zambia
Taken together, these theological voices establish a compelling case for gender equality within the SDA Church.
The creation narrative, Ellen White’s prophetic writings, and modern theological insights converge to affirm that
both men and women share equal dignity and calling. Yet, within Malawi and Zambia, cultural practices such
as lobola, gendered division of labor, and restrictions on women’s leadership undermine these theological truths
(UN Women, 2022).
By affirming the Imago Dei and embracing theological perspectives that emphasize equality, the SDA Church
has the potential to be a transformative agent. It can address issues of abuse, marginalization, and exclusion by
modeling justice and inclusivity in its leadership structures, ministries, and community engagements. Such a
move not only enriches the church’s theological practice but also aligns with global commitments like the United
Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 5, which seeks to achieve gender equality and empower all women and
girls (UN, 2015).
RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The study’s results are drawn from a synthesis of field testimonies, reports from ADRA and other NGOs, and
theological analysis of lived experiences in Malawi and Zambia. The findings highlight persistent gender
injustices, as well as emerging pathways of empowerment and transformation.
Domestic Violence and Cultural Justifications
One of the most pressing findings is the prevalence of domestic violence within SDA households in Malawi and
Zambia. Many women reported experiences of battering at the hands of their husbands, who often invoked
cultural customs as justification for control. The practice of lobola (bride-price), when misinterpreted, fosters
the idea that a woman becomes the “property” of her husband, thereby legitimizing abuse (ADRA, 2021).
According to ADRA Malawi’s 2021 evaluation report, women in rural communities repeatedly expressed that
their husbands used lobola as a means of asserting dominance, silencing dissent, and excusing violence. These
practices not only perpetuate cycles of abuse but also erode women’s sense of dignity and worth. The SDA
Church, while condemning abuse at an official level, has often been slow to provide proactive transformative
pastoral interventions, leaving survivors with limited support systems (ADRA Denmark, 2021).
Ritual Practices and Widow Cleansing
Testimonies also revealed the persistence of harmful widowhood rituals, including ritual sexual cleansing, where
widows are forced to have intercourse with a relative of the deceased husband to “remove impurity.” This
practice, though condemned by health authorities for its role in spreading HIV/AIDS, persists in rural
communities. ADRA’s community-based interventions have documented women who were coerced into such
rituals under the threat of being ostracized if they refused (ADRA Denmark, 2022).
For SDA women, this creates a theological dilemma: the church’s silence or lack of public condemnation of
such practices risks complicity. Survivors testified to feelings of abandonment by their congregations, where
local leaders were reluctant to challenge long-standing traditions for fear of offending community elders.
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Divorce, Sexual Abuse, and Family Breakdown
Another critical finding relates to the prevalence of sexual abuse and divorce. Women shared experiences of
marital rape, incest, and coercion, often leading to broken families. Divorce, while stigmatized in the SDA
Church, is increasingly sought by women seeking safety and dignity. However, divorced women often face
social exclusion, as they are perceived to have “failed” their marriages.
Research indicates that sexual abuse within Christian communities is frequently underreported due to stigma and
theological pressure to maintain family unity (Davids, 2023). The SDA Church in Malawi and Zambia has yet
to develop comprehensive policies for pastoral care of survivors of abuse and divorce, leaving many women
unsupported.
Women’s Empowerment Through Literacy and Economic Initiatives
Despite these challenges, the findings also highlight encouraging examples of empowerment. In particular, adult
literacy programs spearheaded by ADRA and local churches have transformed the lives of women in rural
Zambia and Malawi.
In one testimony, a woman from rural Malawi described how learning to read empowered her to manage her
small business and advocate for her children’s education. Literacy not only expanded her economic opportunities
but also enhanced her participation in church life, as she could now read the Bible and contribute to Sabbath
School discussions. Such stories illustrate that literacy programs are not merely educational initiatives but
theological interventions, affirming women’s equal dignity as bearers of the Imago Dei.
These programs align with Paulo Freire’s pedagogy of empowerment, where literacy becomes a tool for
liberation, enabling individuals to critically engage with and transform their oppressive contexts. Within the
SDA Church, literacy initiatives can thus be understood as part of the mission of justice and restoration.
Migrant Labor and Family Vulnerabilities
The phenomenon of migrant labor, particularly men traveling to South Africa for mining and other employment,
continues to destabilize families in Malawi and Zambia. Women left behind often shoulder the burden of child-
rearing, farming, and household management. However, this separation exposes women to economic
vulnerability, infidelity, and, in some cases, abandonment (Naicker, 2025).
Testimonies revealed that some men who returned from migrant labor brought with them sexually transmitted
infections, including HIV/AIDS, which devastated families. Women lamented that while the SDA Church
teaches faithfulness, it has not adequately addressed the pastoral and social implications of migrant labor
dynamics. Studies confirm that migrant labor exacerbates the spread of HIV and deepens gender inequality in
Southern Africa.
Traditional Responses: Concoction Herbs and Ritual Practices
A particularly striking finding was the way women creatively responded to abusive relationships. Some resorted
to using traditional concoctions and rituals, such as Zenje-Zungulira Khonde (stay around the house), Dekhani
(stop mobility), and Palibe Kanthu (no problem), as protective measures against abusive husbands.
These practices reflect both resilience and desperation. On one hand, they demonstrate women’s agency in
attempting to control their circumstances; on the other, they reveal the inadequacy of church structures in
providing effective support. Anthropological studies of Malawian traditional practices suggest that such
remedies are part of a broader cultural system where women navigate patriarchal oppression through symbolic
acts (Phiri, 2020). However, from a theological perspective, these practices raise concerns about syncretism and
the church’s responsibility to provide alternative, faith-based responses to abuse.
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Polygamy and Changing Marital Practices in the SDA Church
Another significant finding is the persistence of polygamous practices within SDA communities. Although the
denomination officially prohibits polygamy, in practice, leaders admit that men often maintain “hidden
concubinages” or engage in serial extramarital affairs. While overt polygamy has decreased due to church
discipline and education, informal arrangements remain widespread.
Church leaders in Zambia acknowledged that these hidden forms of polygamy create pastoral challenges, as they
perpetuate gender injustice while evading formal accountability. Women in such marriages suffer from economic
insecurity, emotional neglect, and social stigma, yet cultural silence often prevents open confrontation of the
issue.
This reality underscores the need for renewed theological engagement. The church must address not only the
official prohibition of polygamy but also the underlying patriarchal attitudes that sustain it.
Summary of Findings
The findings from this study reveal a dual reality within the SDA Church in Malawi and Zambia. On one hand,
systemic injustices such as abuse, violence, harmful traditions, divorce, and polygamy persist; on the other,
pathways of empowerment, such as literacy programs, ADRA interventions, and women’s resilience strategies,
offer hope for transformation.
Ultimately, these findings underscore the necessity for the SDA Church to engage in critical theological
reflection and cultural reinterpretation. The church cannot merely affirm equality theologically while ignoring
cultural realities; it must actively participate in pastoral care, advocacy, and empowerment initiatives to align
theology with practice. By doing so, the SDA Church can fulfill its mission of promoting justice, dignity, and
equality for all, thereby contributing to the broader struggle for gender justice in African society.
RECOMMENDATIONS
To address the issues of gender inequality and violence against women within the Seventh-day Adventist (SDA)
Church in Malawi and Zambia, the following recommendations are proposed:
Strengthening Pastoral Care and Support Systems:
Develop comprehensive pastoral care programs specifically addressing domestic violence and abuse. This
includes training pastors and church leaders to recognize signs of abuse, provide support to survivors, and create
safe spaces for women to seek help.
Establish partnerships with local NGOs and community organizations, such as ADRA, to enhance support
services for women facing domestic violence, including counseling, legal assistance, and safe shelters.
Educational Initiatives:
Expand adult literacy programs for women, focusing on financial literacy, health education, and legal rights.
These programs should empower women to take control of their economic situations and understand their rights
within marriage and society.
Implement educational workshops for both men and women that challenge traditional gender roles and promote
healthy relationships based on mutual respect and equality.
Advocacy Against Harmful Cultural Practices:
Actively engage in advocacy efforts to combat harmful cultural practices, such as ritual sexual cleansing and
polygamy. The church should take a public stance against these practices and educate congregations about their
negative impacts on women’s health and dignity.
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Collaborate with local leaders and community influencers to reshape cultural narratives that perpetuate gender
inequality.
Promoting Women’s Leadership:
Encourage the inclusion of women in leadership positions within the church. This includes advocating for
women’s ordination and promoting women to decision-making roles in church governance and ministries.
Provide leadership training programs for women to equip them with the skills and confidence needed to take on
leadership roles within the church and their communities.
Addressing Economic Vulnerabilities:
Support income-generating projects for women, particularly in rural areas, to enhance their economic
independence and reduce reliance on male partners. This could include training in entrepreneurship, access to
microloans, and skills development.
Create community support networks that facilitate the sharing of resources and knowledge among women,
fostering solidarity and collective empowerment.
Research and Continuous Evaluation:
Conduct ongoing research to monitor the effectiveness of implemented programs and interventions. This will
help identify best practices and areas needing improvement, ensuring that strategies remain relevant and
impactful.
Encourage feedback from women within the church to better understand their needs and experiences, allowing
for more tailored and effective responses.
CONCLUSION
The study reveals a profound disjunction between the theological ideals of gender equality espoused by the SDA
Church and the lived realities of women in Malawi and Zambia. Despite the church’s teachings on the Imago
Dei, which affirm the equal worth and dignity of both men and women, cultural practices rooted in patriarchy
continue to undermine these principles, resulting in widespread gender-based violence, economic
disempowerment, and social exclusion of women.
To bridge this gap, the SDA Church must engage in a critical re-examination of its theological foundations and
ecclesiastical practices. By aligning its teachings with the lived experiences of its members and actively
confronting cultural norms that perpetuate inequality, the church can become a transformative agent for justice
and empowerment.
The recommendations outlined in this study provide a roadmap for the SDA Church to enhance its commitment
to gender equality and the well-being of women. By fostering an environment of support, education, and
advocacy, the church can fulfill its mission of promoting justice and dignity for all, contributing to a more
equitable society in Malawi and Zambia.
Ultimately, this study highlights the need for an integrated approach that combines theological reflection with
practical action. The SDA Church has the potential to lead the way in advocating for gender justice, not only
within its own community but also in broader societal contexts, thereby embodying the principles of love,
equality, and mutual respect that are central to the Christian faith.
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