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The Impact of Indigenous Apprenticeship Systems (IAS) on the
Livelihoods of Graduates and Apprentices in Lagos State, Nigeria.
Azeez Ismail Olabisi, Essien Adeola Adesola
Department of Sustainability Studies, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
DOI:
https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000012
Received: 29 September 2025; Accepted: 04 October 2025; Published: 01 November 2025
ABSTRACT
In Nigeria, where MSMEs dominate economic activity and formal Technical and Vocational Education remains
inadequate, Indigenous Apprenticeship Systems (IAS) persist as a critical yet under-researched pathway for skill
transfer, entrepreneurship, and livelihood creation. This study examines the impact of Indigenous Apprenticeship
Systems (IAS) on the livelihoods of graduates and apprentices in Lagos State, with particular focus on income
generation, well-being, and MSME sustainability. The study employed a mixed-methods approach, combining
quantitative surveys (utilising chi-square statistics) with qualitative interviews (employing thematic analysis) to
investigate the impact of Indigenous Apprenticeship Systems (IAS) on livelihoods in Lagos State. Employing
convenience and snowball sampling, the research involved administering online questionnaires to 236
respondents (164 graduates and 72 apprentices) from the indigenous crafts of cane weaving and tie-dye. The
study found that Indigenous Apprenticeship Systems (IAS) significantly improved livelihoods in Lagos State,
with 99.0% of graduates reporting enhanced food security and 77.0% improved healthcare access. Additionally,
personal income, business growth, and customer diversification in IAS-based MSMEs were strongly associated
with improvements in housing, utilities, and the overall well-being of the operators. This study demonstrates that
Indigenous Apprenticeship Systems (IAS) in Lagos State remain a critical livelihood pathway, uniquely linking
business performance indicators (MBR, MPI, and BG) to multidimensional well-being outcomes in an urban
African context where such empirical validation has been scarce. The study highlights IAS as a viable
complement to under-resourced formal Technical and Vocational Education systems, necessitating the need for
targeted support, innovation, and digital inclusion policies to sustain their relevance and maximise their impact
on youth employment, sustainable livelihoods, and MSME resilience in Lagos State.
Keywords: Indigenous Apprenticeship Systems (IAS), Livelihood Outcomes, Informal Sector, Micro, Small
and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs), Vocational Education and Training (VET), Skills Development, Urban
Informal Economy.
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
In many developing economies, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, the informal sector serves as the backbone
of economic activity, providing employment, skills development, and income for millions of people who are
excluded from the formal labour market (ILO, 2025). Nigeria exemplifies this pattern, with Micro, Small and
Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) representing about 97% of businesses, 87% of employment, and nearly half of
the national Gross Domestic Product (PwC, 2024). Within this sector, Indigenous Apprenticeship Systems (IAS)
continue to be a vital mechanism for transferring skills, encouraging entrepreneurship, and creating pathways to
livelihoods for both graduates and apprentices.
The IAS is a culturally embedded, informal arrangement whereby a master tradesperson or entrepreneur
undertakes the responsibility of training a young apprentice under socially sanctioned obligations of reciprocity
and trust (Eze, 2024). The most notable example is the Igbo Igba boi system, though variants exist among the
Yoruba and Hausa in Nigeria. Apprentices are trained in real business environments—markets, workshops, and
craft clusters—where they acquire not only technical skills but also tacit knowledge of trade practices, customer
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relations, and network building. Upon graduation, many apprentices are “settled” with financial or material
support to start their own enterprises, thus reinforcing the cycle of entrepreneurship and socio-economic
empowerment (Omede, 2023; Onu et.al., 2023).
Problem Statement
Indigenous Apprenticeship Systems (IAS) have long been recognised for their historical significance and
resilience in Nigeria. In Lagos State—Nigeria’s commercial hub marked by rapid urbanisation, high
unemployment, and intense competition in labour and product markets—the role of IAS in shaping livelihoods
remains underexplored. While formal Vocational Education and Training (VET) programs exist, their limited
coverage and weak alignment with labour market realities constrain their effectiveness (UNDP, 2024). IAS
continues to bridge this gap by providing skills and employment pathways; however, persistent concerns
regarding training quality, exploitative practices, gender exclusion, and a lack of certification raise questions
about its long-term effectiveness (Abasilim, 2024; Okpokwasili, 2024).
Although studies from southeastern Nigeria highlight the contributions of IAS to poverty alleviation and business
sustainability, there is a lack of empirical research on its impacts in Lagos, where diverse ethnic groups, dense
trade associations, and government youth-employability initiatives intersect. This gap limits policymakers’ and
stakeholders’ ability to evaluate IAS as a sustainable livelihood pathway in urban contexts.
The problem this study addresses is the lack of systematic evidence on how IAS influences the livelihoods of
graduates and apprentices in Lagos State, particularly in relation to income generation and well-being.
Objectives of the Study
The general objective of this study is to examine the impact of Indigenous Apprenticeship Systems on the
livelihoods of graduates and apprentices in Lagos State. The specific objectives are to:
1. Examine the effects of indigenous apprenticeship systems on the livelihood of the graduates/operators of
indigenous small and medium enterprises in Lagos State.
2. Analyse the effects of indigenous apprenticeship systems on the livelihood of the apprentices of
indigenous small and medium enterprises in Lagos State.
3. Provide policy recommendations for strengthening IAS as a tool for youth employment and sustainable
livelihoods.
Research Questions
1. Do the indigenous apprenticeship systems impact the livelihood of the graduates/operators of indigenous
micro, small and medium enterprises in Lagos State?
2. Do the indigenous apprenticeship systems impact the livelihood of the apprentices of indigenous micro,
small and medium enterprises in Lagos State?
3. What strategies can be adopted to strengthen IAS for inclusive and sustainable development?
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
The literature review provides the theoretical and empirical foundation for examining Indigenous Apprenticeship
Systems (IAS) and their role in enhancing the livelihoods of Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs)
in Lagos State.
This section reviews existing scholarship on Conceptual clarification, Theoretical frameworks, and Empirical
literature. By synthesising both global and Nigerian studies, the review identifies gaps in knowledge, particularly
the lack of systematic evidence linking IAS participation to multidimensional livelihood outcomes in Lagos
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State. These gaps form the basis for the present study, which seeks to contribute new empirical insights into the
intersection of apprenticeship, culture, and MSME performance in an urban African economy.
Conceptual Clarification
Indigenous Apprenticeship Systems (IAS)
Indigenous Apprenticeship Systems (IAS) are culturally embedded training mechanisms where young people
acquire trade skills, entrepreneurial knowledge, and socio-cultural values under the tutelage of a master
craftsperson or trader. Unlike formal Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET), IAS is regulated
by informal norms, kinship ties, and community expectations rather than state certification (ILO, 2025). In
Nigeria, the most widely documented form is the Igbo Igba boi system, but the Yoruba (ọmọ-ọ
nà system) and
Hausa (kayan aiki) also maintain robust apprenticeship traditions (Eze, 2024).
Livelihoods
“Livelihoods” are the capabilities, assets, and activities required for a means of living (Chambers & Conway,
1992). In the Lagos context, livelihoods extend beyond income to include employment opportunities, enterprise
ownership, resilience against shocks, and social mobility. IAS therefore influences livelihoods by equipping
apprentices with skills, networks, and start-up resources needed to transition into self-reliance.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS
Human Capital Theory
According to Becker (1964), investments in education and training increase worker productivity and earnings.
IAS embodies this by providing on-the-job training, fostering practical competencies, and shortening the
learning-to-work gap (Omede, 2023).
Social Capital Theory
Putnam (1993) emphasises the role of trust, reciprocity, and networks in economic outcomes. In IAS, apprentices
gain access to bonding social capital (kinship/ethnic ties) and bridging capital (supplier networks, trade
associations), which support credit access, market entry, and livelihood sustainability (Eze, 2024).
Person–Environment (P–E) Fit Theory
This framework posits that individuals perform better when their values and skills align with the environment
(Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). Apprenticeship thrives because it aligns with the socio-cultural norms of reciprocity
and respect for elders, while producing business-ready graduates who can navigate Lagos’ competitive markets.
Empirical Literature
Studies consistently show that IAS is Nigeria’s largest non-formal training provider. The ILO (2025) notes that
over 70% of artisans and traders in urban Nigeria acquired skills through informal apprenticeship. In Lagos,
apprenticeships remain dominant in sectors such as electronics (Computer Village), textiles (Balogun Market),
and carpentry (Somolu).
Empirical studies have linked IAS to high conversion rates of entrepreneurship. Onu (2023) and Omede (2023)
demonstrate that graduates who receive “settlement” support are more likely to establish enterprises within two
years of completing their studies. Lagos’ Igbo clusters replicate this by injecting new business owners into dense
trade ecosystems.
Omede (2023) reports that graduates of IAS in Nigeria earn 25–40% higher incomes than peers without
vocational training. Abasilim (2024) highlights gender disparities, as female apprentices often earn less and face
exclusion from lucrative trades, although inclusion is increasing in Lagos's retail and service sectors.
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IAS builds resilience by embedding apprentices into supportive networks that cushion economic shocks. During
the COVID-19 pandemic, apprentices and graduates with strong ties to trade associations in Lagos were able to
recover more quickly by accessing supplier credit and rotating savings and credit associations (UNDP, 2024).
Historically male-dominated, IAS is slowly becoming more gender-inclusive. Okpokwasili (2024) documents
the rising participation of females, although barriers such as harassment, limited access to settlement, and
domestic role conflicts persist. Lagos’ markets reveal higher female presence in textiles and catering, yet
exclusion remains in electronics and mechanics.
Research Gaps
Most IAS studies focus on Southeast Nigeria, with fewer empirical works on Lagos despite its diverse urban
context. While qualitative studies highlight positive narratives, rigorous measurement of income, employment,
and resilience outcomes in Lagos IAS is still sparse
The literature indicates that IAS is a powerful instrument of skill formation, entrepreneurship, and livelihood
security in Nigeria. It continues to thrive in Lagos State’s multicultural economy, where formal vocational
systems are insufficient. However, its performance is shaped by contextual factors: settlement capital, gender
norms, association structures, and government linkages. While evidence from other regions suggests substantial
livelihood impacts, Lagos’ unique socio-economic landscape requires systematic research to quantify IAS
outcomes and to explore how traditional apprenticeship can be modernised for inclusive development.
CONCLUSION
The literature indicates that while IAS remains a fundamental element of informal sector development, its full
potential to enhance livelihood outcomes is limited by socio-cultural, institutional, and policy obstacles. This
gap justifies the current study, which aims to explore how IAS practices, mechanisms, and support systems
influence the livelihoods of apprentices and graduates in Lagos State.
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This section outlines the methodological framework adopted to investigate the impact of Indigenous
Apprenticeship Systems (IAS) on the livelihoods of apprentices and operators of indigenous MSMEs in Lagos
State. The methodology provides the blueprint for how the study was designed, the data collected, and the
analyses conducted to answer the research questions and test the hypotheses.
The methodology is organised into subsections covering Introduction to Research Framework, quantitative data,
qualitative data, secondary data, Conceptual Framework, hypothesis testing, conclusions and Recommendations.
This ensures transparency, replicability, and rigour in examining how IAS functions as a livelihood pathway and
socio-economic driver in Lagos State.
Introduction to Research Framework
Research Design
This study adopts a mixed-methods research design, combining quantitative surveys with qualitative interviews
to capture both the measurable outcomes of IAS and the lived experiences of graduates in Lagos State. A mixed-
methods approach is justified because IAS is not only an economic phenomenon (involving income,
employment, and enterprise creation) but also a socio-cultural institution governed by norms, values, and
networks (Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2018).
The quantitative component assesses the statistical impact of IAS on key livelihood indicators, including income,
employment status, enterprise ownership, and resilience. The qualitative component explores in-depth narratives
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of graduates and master trainers, thereby contextualising statistical findings with rich descriptions of
experiences, challenges, and cultural dynamics.
Population of the Study
The target population consists of individuals directly involved in IAS in cane weaving and tie & dye within
Lagos State. These include:
1. Current apprentices undergoing training in cane weaving and tie & dye artisan associations in Lagos state
2. Graduates of IAS who have transitioned into self-employment, wage employment, or micro-enterprise
ownership.
3. Master trainers/trade association leaders responsible for supervising apprentices and enforcing
apprenticeship norms.
The study focuses on prominent apprenticeship hubs such as:
• Cane Weaving Association in Lagos State.
• Tie and dye association in Lagos State.
Quantitative data
Sample and Sampling Technique
Quantitative Sample: Given the diversity of trades, Convenience and snowballing sampling were employed:
1. Convenience sampling for graduates in Cane weaving
2. Snowballing sampling for graduates in Tie & Dye
3. Snowballing sampling for apprentices in both crafts
Aligning with common recommendations for achieving representativeness and efficiency as highlighted by
Asenahabi and Peters (2023), 29% of the targeted population of 566 resulted in 164 Graduates/Operators of IAS,
and 72 apprentices were selected from the operators that have apprentices from the two indigenous crafts
enterprises, making a total of 236 respondents.
Research Instruments
Structured Questionnaire
Two sets of Questionnaires were used for the study, which were arranged in Sections A, B, C, and D. Each of
the sections covered the general background data of the respondents: socioeconomic/cultural
characteristics of
the respondents, Background information about indigenous businesses and perceived impact of indigenous
apprenticeship on respondents’ household livelihood.
Methods of Data Collection
Quantitative survey: Assisted online, face-to-face administration by trained enumerators in markets, workshops
and meeting locations.
Methods of Data Analysis
Data was analysed using Excel and SPSS 25. The information obtained was subjected to both descriptive and
inferential statistics. The responses obtained through the questionnaires were tabulated, categorised, and
descriptively analysed using frequencies and percentages to present the performance of IAS and perceptions on
the livelihood of the operators and apprentices of indigenous micro, small, and medium enterprises. The
inferential statistics used were the chi-square test of association. Chi-square test of association was used to test
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the influence of indigenous apprenticeship systems (IAS) on the livelihood of the operators of indigenous small
and medium enterprises in Lagos State
󰇡
󰇛

󰇜
󰇢

………………………………………………………….…………..…1
X
i
= Observed variable (variables IAS Performance, e.g. Monthly Revenue from the business, business growth,
operators' Income per month, Number of staff, Customer Types, etc.),
M
i
= Expected variable (livelihood of IAS operators and apprentices, e.g. affordability of adequate meals,
percentage of your income allocated to food, improvement in Housing type, access to portable pipe-borne water,
access to quality education for my wards, etc.).
= Chi-square
Qualitative data
Structured in-depth interviews with operators were used to elicit relevant information from the graduated
apprentice in the English language and were later transcribed for thematic analysis. There were questions on
sociocultural influences, livelihood outcomes, training challenges, and support systems. This was necessary for
triangulating findings across Qualitative and quantitative methods.
Qualitative sample:
11 operators were purposively selected for in-depth interviews based on their experience and willingness to
participate. This sample size is considered adequate for statistical analysis and thematic saturation in qualitative
inquiry (Guest et al., 2020)
Methods of Data Collection
Qualitative interviews: A semi-structured interview guide was used. Interviews were conducted in English or
Pidgin, depending on the respondent's preference. Some Interviews were audio-recorded, while others were
handwritten and transcribed verbatim. Ethical approval was obtained, and informed consent was secured from
all participants.
Qualitative Analysis
Interview transcripts were analysed using thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2019) to code the data into themes,.
This will allow triangulation of statistical results with narrative evidence.
Conceptual Framework
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The conceptual framework illustrates the relationship between Indigenous Apprenticeship Systems (IAS), the
livelihood outcomes of apprenticeship graduates, and the performance of MSMEs in Lagos State. The framework
proposes that IAS directly influences graduates’ livelihoods, but the strength of this influence depends on
sociocultural moderators.
This study is anchored on the assumption that sociocultural factors shape the functioning and effectiveness of
Indigenous Apprenticeship Systems (IAS), which in turn influence graduates’ livelihood outcomes.
The framework illustrates a three-tier relationship. At the first level, sociocultural factors, as moderators, are the
external context or backdrop — such as Ethnicity, kinship ties, gender roles, and migration status — that form
the context within which IAS operate, influencing both access to apprenticeships and livelihood outcomes. For
example, kinship networks may determine who gets training, while gender norms can shape the kinds of trades
women or men can enter. These sociocultural factors moderate the strength and direction of the relationship
between IAS and livelihood outcomes (Akinlabi, 2024). These factors determine how apprentices are recruited,
trained, and transitioned into operators of indigenous enterprises.
At the second level, the Indigenous Apprenticeship System (The independent variable). Indigenous
Apprenticeship Systems serve as the primary channel through which technical and entrepreneurial skills are
transferred to apprentices. It is the central mechanism for skill acquisition, entrepreneurial grooming, and cultural
transmission. IAS encompasses traditional knowledge transfer, with an emphasis on hands-on training, mentor-
apprentice relationships, character development, and the cultural norms that govern apprenticeship. This
approach equips apprentices with both technical competencies and entrepreneurial acumen, as well as
community-based skill development. However, its effectiveness is conditioned by the enabling or constraining
sociocultural factors.
At the third level, the outcomes of IAS manifest in the livelihoods of graduates and apprentices (Dependent
variables). Graduates'/Apprentices' Livelihood refers to the economic and social well-being of individuals who
undertake indigenous apprenticeship, measured by employability, self-reliance, income generation, and the
ability to transition successfully into entrepreneurship. Upon completing apprenticeships, graduates’ livelihood
outcomes are expected to improve through increased income, job security, enhanced employability, and better
entrepreneurial readiness (Irene et al., 2024). The quality of IAS determines whether graduates achieve
sustainable livelihoods or remain vulnerable in the informal economy.
This conceptual framework positions IAS as a mediating mechanism between sociocultural factors and
development outcomes of livelihood security.
Validity and Reliability
Validity: Instruments were reviewed by scholars/practitioners with a focus on Indigenous knowledge,
Economics, and sociology at the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Pilot testing was conducted with 20 MSME
operators to test clarity and relevance. Triangulation: Combining quantitative and qualitative data enhances the
reliability and robustness of findings.
Ethical Considerations
Participation was voluntary, with the right to withdraw at any point. Informed consent was obtained before
administering questionnaires or recording interviews. Anonymity and confidentiality will be maintained;
pseudonyms will be used in reporting. Sensitive issues such as financial records or exploitative practices will be
handled with cultural sensitivity.
Secondary data
Secondary data were obtained from NBS/SMEDAN MSME reports, Lagos State Artisans compendium,
UNESCO/UNIDO craft studies, journal articles, and policy documents
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Hypothesis testing
Based on the research objectives, the null hypotheses that were tested are as follows:
Ho
1
: The Indigenous apprenticeship system has no impact on the livelihood of the graduates/operators of
indigenous micro, small and medium enterprises in Lagos state.
Ho2: The Indigenous apprenticeship system has no impact on the livelihoods of apprentices in Indigenous
micro, small and medium enterprises in Lagos State.
CONCLUSIONS
This study employed a qualitative research design to explore how Indigenous Apprenticeship Systems (IAS)
influence the livelihoods of apprentices and graduates in Lagos State. Through in-depth interviews and thematic
analysis, the research captured participants' lived experiences and the socio-cultural dynamics shaping the
system. The methodological approach ensured a rich understanding of how contextual factors, apprenticeship
processes, and individual capabilities interact to determine livelihood outcomes, thereby providing a strong
foundation for evidence-based policy recommendations.
FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
The findings and analysis of the study are presented and discussed below:
Socio-Demographic Profile
Socio-economic Background of the Operators of indigenous MSMEs in Lagos State
The socio-economic characteristics of the Operators/IAS graduates are presented in Table 1. Most of the
operators were female (64.0%), with operator ages ranging between 30 and 50 years (49.0%) and above 50 years
(46.0%). About 87.0% of the operators were not natives of Lagos state, and 91.0% of them have been residents
in Lagos State for more than 15 years. Religious diversity indicated that 62.0% of the operators are Christians,
while 38.0% are Muslims. Additionally, 63.0% of the operators specialise in tie and dye craft, while 37.0%
specialise in cane weaving craft. Regarding marital status, 85.0% of the operators were married, while only
11.0% were single, and 4.0% were either divorced or widowed. Examining their level of Education, 68.0% of
the operators have a Secondary education, 16.0% have higher education, 14.0% possess primary education, while
only 2.0% have no formal education. Years in Business: 29.0% of the operators have been in business for more
than 21 years, 31.0% for between 11 and 20 years and 41.0% for between 1 and 10 years. This is a good indicator
of the sustainability of these indigenous businesses.
Table 1: Socio-economic Background of the Operators of indigenous MSMEs in Lagos State
Frequency
Percentage
Mode
Sex
Male
59
36.0
Female
Female
105
64.0
Age (Years)
>20 >30
9
5.5
> 50 years
> 30> 40
33
20.1
> 40>50
46
28.0
> 50
76
46.3
Duration of Resident in Lagos (Years)
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>2> 5
2
1.2
> 15years
>5 >10
6
3.7
>10 >15
6
3.7
> 15
150
91.7
Native of Locality?
Yes
21
12.8
No
No
143
87.2
Educational Status
No formal Education
3
1.8
Secondary
Education
Primary Education
23
14.0
Secondary Education
112
68.3
OND/NCE
13
7.9
HND/First Degree
12
7.3
Higher Degree
1
0.6
Marital Status
Single
18
11.0
Married
Married
139
84.8
Separated/widowed
6
3.7
Divorced
1
0.6
Household Size
1 - 3
41
25
4 – 6
4 - 6
99
60.5
7 - 9
19
12.2
10 - 12
3
1.8
13 - 15
1
0.6
Religion
Christianity
102
62.2
Christianity
Islam
62
37.8
Business Type
Cane weaving
60
36.6
Tye and Dye
Tye and Dye
104
63.4
Length of Experience in Business (Years)
1- 5
27
16.5
≥ 21 Years
6 – 10
40
24.4
11-15
38
23.2
16 – 20
12
7.3
≥21
47
28.7
Source: Field Survey, 2024.
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Socioeconomics of the apprentices of indigenous MSMEs in Lagos State
Examining the socioeconomic characteristics of apprentices within the Indigenous apprenticeship system (Table
2), the study found that there were more female (71.0%) than male (29.0%) apprentices. A higher proportion
(35.0%) of them are between 10 and 20years of age, followed by those between 20 and 30 years (31.0%), while
15.0% are between 30 and 40 years. Additionally, 83.0% of them are from Lagos State, and 76.0% have resided
in Lagos State for over 15 years. Furthermore, 79.0% of the apprentices have a secondary education, 10.0% have
a primary education, and 11.0% have a higher education beyond secondary.
Regarding marital status, 58.0% of them were single, 36.0% were married, 36.0% were separated, and 6.0%
were divorced. The modal household size among the apprentices (56.0%) was between 4 and 6 people, followed
by 1-3 (32.0%) and 7-9 (11.0%). Religion distribution revealed 55.0% as Christians and 35.0% as Muslims,
while 72.0% are in the tie & dye apprenticeship and 28.0% are learning cane weaving. Worthy of note is the
apprenticeship period, which lasted between 1 and 2 years for 75.0% of the apprentices, followed by more than
5 years (14.0%).
Table 2: Socioeconomics of the apprentices of indigenous MSMEs in Lagos State
Frequency
Percentage
Mode
Sex
21
29.2
Female
51
70.8
Age
25
34.7
>10 > 20
years
22
30.6
11
15.3
8.2
8.3
11
11.1
Nativity to the locality
60
83.3
Yes
12
16.7
Years of residence in Lagos
9
12.5
> 15 years
4
5.6
4
5.6
55
76.4
Level of formal Education
7
9.7
Secondary
Education
57
79.2
4
5.6
4
5.6
Marital status
42
58.3
Single
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26
36.1
4
5.6
Household Size
23
32.0
4-6
40
55.6
8
11.1
1
1.4
Religion
47
65.3
Christianity
25
34.7
Craft/Business Type
20
27.8
Tye and Dye
52
72.2
Year of Experience as an apprentice
54
75.0
1- 2yrs
8
11.1
1
1.4
1
1.4
8
11.1
Ethnic group
54
75.0
Yoruba
1
1.4
2
2.8
15
20.8
Source: Field Survey, 2024.
Livelihood of Operators of Indigenous MSMEs in Lagos State
The distribution of indigenous MSME operators’ responses to the indices of livelihood (Table 3) revealed that
78.0% of them spent between N1,000 and N20,000 (modal spending on health), and 17.0% spent N21,000 to
N50,000 per month on family health. Additionally, 51.0% of them spent between N1,000 and N50,000, and
27.0% spent between N51,000 and N100,000 on their children’s education monthly. Of the operators, 70.0%
spent between N1,000 and N10,000, while 22.0% spent N11,000 – N20,000 on the maintenance of government
infrastructures every month.
Furthermore, 59.0% of the operators consented to eating three times or more daily, while 40.0% ate at least twice
a day. It is also noteworthy that 60.0% of them skip food once or twice a week, while 34.0% do not skip meals
at all. Regarding skipping meals, 56.0% of respondents attributed their meal skipping to religious activities, 4.0%
to health reasons, 2.0% to financial constraints, and 38.0% to other reasons.
Investigating the quality of food consumed, 97.0% of the operators consume food cooked at home. The level of
consumption of staple food was observed to be low for 60.0% of the operators, moderate for 35.0%, while junk
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food consumption was low for 93.0% of them. Also found by the study was that 78.0% of the operators expend
30% or more of their annual income on food procurement.
Table 3: Livelihood of Operators of Indigenous MSMEs in Lagos State
Frequency
Percentage
Mode
MSMEs Operator’s Expenditure on household health/month (N)
1,000 - 20,000
127
77.9
1,000 – 20,000
21,000 - 50,000
30
17
51,000 - 100,000
5
3
101,000 - 200,000
1
0.6
201,000 - 300,000
1
0.6
MSMEs Operator’s Expenditure on children education/month (N)
None
13
9.0
1,000 – 50,000
1,000 – 50,000
74
51.1
51,000 - 100,000
38
26.9
101,000 - 200,000
17
10.7
201,000 - 250,000
2
1.4
MSMEs Operator’s Expenditure on servicing government infrastructure/month (N)
1,000 - 10,000
115
70.1
1,000 - 10,000
11,000 - 20,000
36
21.7
21,000 - 50,000
3
1.8
51,000 - 100,000
10
6.1
Number of times MSMEs Operators eat in a day?
Once
2
1.2
Thrice
Twice
66
40.2
Thrice
88
53.7
More than thrice
8
4.9
Number of times MSMEs Operators skip meals in a week?
None
58
35.4
None
Once
49
29.9
Twice
50
30.5
Thrice
7
4.3
Reason why MSMEs Operators skip meals
Lack of financial capacity
4
2.4
Due to religious
activity
Due to religious activity
91
55.5
On health ground
7
4.3
Others
62
37.8
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The level of consumption of cooked food by Operators of MSMEs
Moderate
5
3.0
High
High
159
97.0
The level of consumption of Staple foods by Operators of MSMEs
Low
98
59.8
Low
Moderate,
58
35.4
High
8
4.9
The level of consumption of junk foods by Operators of MSMEs
Low
152
92.7
Low
Moderate
10
6.1
High
2
1.2
Percentage of annual income allocated to food procurement by Operators of MSMEs
> 10 ≤ 20%
13
7.9
>30 ≤ 40%
>20 ≤ 30%
23
14
>30 ≤ 40%
47
28.7
>40 ≤ 50%,
36
22
>50%
45
27.4
Source: Field Survey, 2024.
Livelihood support of the apprentices of Indigenous MSMEs in Lagos state
Indices of livelihood support enjoyed by apprentices of Indigenous MSMEs in Lagos State (Table 4) revealed
that 63.0% of trainees earn no money. In comparison, the remaining 37.0% of respondents report earning
between N10,000 and N100,000 per month. However, 72.0% of them receive support from parents, friends,
spouses and other sources, while 46.0% and 14.0% receive support only from their parents and spouses,
respectively (Table 4.12). The average monthly support received was N10,000, with a range of N4,000 to
N60,000.
Furthermore, none of the support received was allocated to household health, as 53.0% of the apprentices
indicated. Similarly, none went into offsetting children’s education bills and servicing government infrastructures
among 72.0% and 65% of the apprentices, respectively. 52% of an average apprentice of indigenous MSMEs
(52.0%) in Lagos State ate at least thrice or more times daily, 48.0% ate twice, 39.0% do not skip meals, while
58.0% skip meals only once or twice in a week, and it's mainly for religious reasons by 54.0% (Table 4.12). Most
apprentices (97.0%) eat food cooked at home, while 83.0% are low in staple food consumption, and the
remaining 17.0% are moderate. Additionally, 90.0% of individuals are low in their consumption of junk food,
and the remaining 10.0% are moderate in their junk food consumption. More than half (65.0%) of them spend
over 50.0% of their income and financial support on food procurement annually.
Table 4 : Livelihood support of the apprentices of Indigenous MSMEs in Lagos state
Frequency
Percentage
Mode
Income per month from Business (N)
Nothing
45
62.5
10,000
3
4.2
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15,000
1
1.4
Nothing
20,000
7
9.7
25,000
2
2.8
30,000
5
6.9
40,000
3
4.2
50,000
3
4.2
100,000
3
4.2
Consent on Receiving Support as a Learner
Yes
52
72.2
Yes
No
20
27.8
Source(s) of Learner Support
Parent
33
45.8
Parent
Friends
4
5.6
Spouse
10
13.9
Others
25
34.7
Average Learner Support/Month (N)
None
8
11.1
10,000
4,000
1
1.4
5,000
6
8.3
6,000
2
2.8
10,000
15
20.8
12,000
4
5.6
14,000
1
1.4
15,000
5
6.9
17,000
1
1.4
20,000
13
18.1
25,000
2
2.8
30,000
8
11.1
40,000
3
4.2
50,000
2
2.8
60,000
1
1.4
Expenditure on Household Health/Month (N)
None
38
52.8
None
1,000
2
2.8
2,000
4
5.6
3 ,000
4
5.6
5,000
8
11.1
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9 ,000
2
2.8
10 ,000
6
8.3
15,000
1
1.4
20,000
5
6.9
25,000
1
1.4
30,000
1
1.4
Expenditure on Children's Education/Month (N)
None
52
72.2
None
3,000
1
1.4
5,000
1
1.4
8,000
1
1.4
10,000
2
2.8
15,000
4
5.6
20,000
2
2.8
30,000
4
5.6
40,000
2
2.8
50,000
2
2.8
70,000
1
1.4
Expenditure on Servicing Government Infrastructure/Month (N)
None
47
65.3
None
1,000
3
4.2
1,500
1
1.2
2,000
4
5.6
2,500
1
1.4
3,000
7
9.7
5,000
6
8.3
8,000
1
1.4
10,000
2
2.8
Frequency of Eating/Day
Twice,
34
47.6
Trice
Trice
36
49.6
more than thrice
2
2.8
Frequency of Skipping Meals/Week
None
28
38.9
None
Once
25
34.7
Twice
17
23.6
Thrice
1
1.4
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more than thrice
1
1.4
Reason for Skipping Meals
Due to religious activity
39
54.2
Religious
activity
Others
33
45.8
Level of Consumption of Cooked Food
Low
1
1.4
High
moderate
1
1.4
high
70
97.2
Level of Consumption of Staple Foods
Low
60
83.3
Low
moderate
12
16.7
Level of Consumption of Junk Foods
Low
65
90.3
Low
moderate
7
9.7
Percentage of Annual Income Allocated to Food Procurement
> 10 ≤ 20%
7
9.7
>50%
> 20 ≤ 30%,
7
9.7
> 30 ≤ 40%
9
12.5
> 40 ≤ 50%,
2
2.8
> 50%
47
65.3
Source: Field Survey, 2024.
Quantitative Livelihood Outcomes
Frequency Distribution of MSMEs Operators' Level of Perception of the Indigenous Apprenticeship Scheme
Effect on their livelihood
The study (Table 5) revealed that the livelihood of approximately 98.0% of graduates from the Indigenous
Apprenticeship System (IAS) was perceived to have improved in terms of housing. They have been able to
improve, upgrade and maintain their accommodation after graduation.
Also, 99% of the graduates/operators linked improvement in their ability to afford adequate meals in their
household to their business. This is another significant indicator of IAS's contribution to improving the
livelihoods of operators.
Regarding the health conditions of IAS graduates, the study (Table 5) revealed that 98.0% of the IAS graduates
agreed that their health conditions are significantly better in their households after graduation than they were
during their apprenticeship, and 77.0% agreed that they could afford to use government hospitals. However,
17.0% were of the view that they could only afford ethno-medicinal treatments.
The perception of livelihood based on the improvement in lighting systems enjoyed by IAS operators (Table 5)
reveals that 98.0% of the graduates have access to a light supply from a government power source, and 83.0%
affirm that the supply is both affordable and consistent. In comparison, 87.0% can afford an electricity-generating
set for lighting.
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Examining the perception of IAS operators regarding water sources in the study (Table 5), it was found that the
sinking borehole was accessible to 85.0% of them. However, only 45.0% attributed this inaccessibility to
affordability. However, 85.0% of them have access to clean piped water in their communities.
On cooking facilities (Table 5), 93.0% of the graduates prefer cooking with gas to other options because it saves
time and they can afford it; however, 87.0% can only afford the use of a kerosene stove, and 86.0% did not
perceive the use of charcoal as a better cooking option for their household.
Examining IAS operators’ perception of electronics, the study (Table 4.5) revealed that 88.0% of them agreed
on the usefulness of home and cooking appliances for their households, while 92.0% viewed electronic
appliances as essential and affordable, and were procured for their families.
On the Children's Education of IAS operators, the study (Table 5) found that 87.0% of them can afford quality
education for their children and wards, 84.0% of them have access to higher education in their community, and
61.0% would prefer their wards to have technical skills in addition to higher education, despite their ability to
afford higher education.
Regarding transportation, the study (Table 4.5) found that 87.0% of the graduates and their family members did
not have access to a functional motor vehicle or motorcycle; however, 90.0% of them affirmed that the
transportation system in the study area was affordable and sufficient.
Table 5: Frequency Distribution of MSMEs Operators' Level of Perception of Indigenous Apprenticeship
Scheme Effect on their livelihood
Perception of Livelihood Statements
SA
A
UN
D
SD
Mode
Housing Type
Housing type is improving with years of graduation
from an indigenous apprenticeship
55
(33.5)
106
(61.6)
1
(0.6)
2
(1.2)
-
A
The maintenance cost of accommodation is more
affordable with increasing
52
(31.7)
109
(66.5)
1
(0.6)
2
(1.2)
-
A
There is not much difficulty in upgrading the
accommodation after graduation
49
(29.9)
111
(67.7)
1
(0.6)
3
(1.8)
-
A
There is more improvement in accommodation after
graduation.
50
(30.5)
111
(67.7)
2
(1.2)
1
(0.6)
-
A
Food Utilities
The affordability of food has become much better
after graduation
50
(30.5)
113
(68.9)
1
(0.6)
-
-
A
I can afford adequate meals in my household after
graduation.
48
(29.3)
114
(69.5)
1
(0.6)
1
(0.6)
-
A
No improvement in food intake after graduation
11
(6.7)
3
(1.8)
10
(6.1)
140
(85.4)
-
D
Health Condition
Health conditions are much better now in my
household than when I was an apprentice
55
(33.5)
106
(64.6)
-
3
(1.8)
-
A
I can only afford to pay for government hospital bills
for my household.
34
(20.7)
93
(56.7)
3
(1.8)
34
(20.7)
A
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I can only afford ethnomedicinal treatment for my
household
20
(12.2)
8
(4.9)
15
(9.1)
121
(73.8)
D
Lighting System
Light supply from the government's power source is
accessible
51
(31.1)
110
(67.1)
-
3
(1.8)
-
A
Provision of lighting in my house through a
generating set is affordable
47
(28.7)
96
(58.5)
4
(2.4)
17
(10.4)
-
A
There is a constant supply of affordable power.
36
(22.0)
100
(61)
4
(2.4)
24
(13.6)
-
A
Water Sources
The sinking of the borehole is more affordable for my
household
50
(30.1)
30
(18.3)
10
(6.1)
74
(45.1)
-
D
The borehole is not accessible due to the cost of
sinking it
67
(40.9)
73
(44.5)
17
(10.7)
7
(4.3)
-
A
There is access to a portable pipe-borne water supply
in my community.
39
(23.8)
101
(61.6)
8
(4.9)
16
(9.8)
-
A
There is a water supply from a tanker to the
community at an affordable cost
45
(27.4)
23
(14.0)
7
(4.3)
89
(54.3)
-
D
Cooking Sources
Maintenance of a kerosene stove is not affordable.
3
(1.8)
18
(11.0)
2
(1.2)
141
(86.0)
-
D
Cooking with a charcoal pot is much better for my
household
2
(1.2)
21
(12.8)
6
(3.7)
135
(82.3)
-
D
I prefer to use gas for cooking because it saves time
and is affordable
100
(61.0)
54
(32.9)
4
(2.4)
6
(3.7)
-
SA
Electronic Appliances
Essential appliances which are affordable are
procured for my family
49
(29.9)
102
(62.2)
4
(2.4)
9
(5.5)
A
Home and cooking appliances are helpful in my
household for preservation purposes
48
(29.3)
97
(59.1)
5
(3.0)
14
(8.5)
A
Children's Education
I can afford quality education for my wards
41
(25.0)
102
(62.2)
19
(11.6)
2
(1.2)
-
A
I have access to higher education for my wards in my
community
38
(23.2)
100
(61.0)
21
(12.8)
5
(3.0)
-
A
Though I can afford Higher education for my wards,
I prefer that they have technical skills
15
(9.1)
85
(51.8)
20
(12.2)
44
(26.8)
-
A
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Transportation
My household has access to a functional motorcycle/
vehicle
6
(3.7)
10
(6.1)
5
(3.0)
143
(87.2)
-
D
A motor vehicle is germane for the conveyance of my
family, and I have one
6
(3.7)
10
(6.1)
5
(3.0)
143
(87.2)
-
D
I do not have access to a personal vehicle, but public
transportation is sufficient
96
(58.5)
52
(31.7)
11
(6.7)
5
(3.0)
-
A
NB* Percentages of the distributions are in parentheses
Source: Field Survey, 2024.
Apprentice's View on the Impact of IAS on their Livelihood
The perception of the IAS apprentices on their livelihood (Table 6) revealed that they are mostly undecided on
the perception statements. This may be attributed to the fact that most of them are not directly responsible for
providing these livelihood indicators. For example, between 72.0% and 74.0% of the apprentices are undecided
about improvement in their housing type, housing maintenance, ease of upgrading their house, and improvement
in accommodation over their apprenticeship years, but 25.0% submitted positive responses (Table 6).
Examining apprentices' views on food utilities (Table 6 ), the percentage with undecided views was 53.0%.
However, 46.0% were positive regarding food affordability, and 25.0% regarding improvement in food intake.
Regarding health conditions as an indicator of livelihood, 57.0% were undecided, while 65% were undecided,
and 21.0% affirmed their affordability of government hospitals, and 32.0% their affordability of ethnomedicinal
treatment.
Investigating apprentices’ perception of lighting system as an index of livelihood (Table 6), 57.0% - 60.0% were
undecided, but 31.0% expressed their inability to afford electricity through an electric generating set. In
comparison, 40.0% affirmed their access to light from a government power source, and 25.0% could not afford
a constant supply from such a source. The trend in water sources as an indicator of apprentice livelihood (Table
6) was not significantly different, as the results ranged from 54.0 to 69.0, with undecided responses on the
parameter under review.
In terms of cooking utilities as an indicator of livelihood among indigenous MSMEs apprentices (Table 6),
between 57.0% and 60.0% of the respondents met the parameters used. Notably, however, the trend of
observation on children’s education as an indicator of livelihood among apprentices is similar to that of housing,
with 72.0 to 79.0% undecided on the parameter used.
Table 6: Apprentice View on the Impact of IAS on their Livelihood
Perception of Livelihood Statements
SA
A
UN
D
SD
Mode
Housing Type
Housing type is improving with years of graduation from
indigenous apprenticeship
3
(4.2)
15
(20.8)
52
(72.2)
2
(2.8)
-
UN
The maintenance cost of accommodation is more
affordable with increasing
3
(4.2)
15
(20.8)
53
(72.2)
1
(1.4)
-
UN
There is not much difficulty in upgrading the
accommodation after graduation
3
(4.2)
15
(20.8)
53
(72.2)
1
(1.4)
-
UN
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There is more improvement in accommodation after
graduation.
3
(4.2)
15
(20.8)
53
(72.2)
1
(1.4)
-
UN
Food Utilities-
The affordability of food has become much better after
graduation
14
(19.4)
19
(26.4)
38
(52.8)
1
(1.4)
-
UN
I can afford adequate meals in my household after
graduation.
15
(20.8)
18
(25.0)
38
52.8)
1
(1.40
-
UN
No improvement in food intake after graduation
10
(13.9)
8
(11.1)
38
(52.8)
16
(22.2)
-
UN
Health Condition
Health conditions are much better now in my household
than as an apprentice
14
(19.4)
16
(22.2)
41
(56.9)
1
(1.4)
-
UN
I can only afford government hospital bills for my
household]
4
(5.6)
11
(15.3)
47
(65.3)
10
(13.9)
-
UN
I can only afford ethno-medicinal treatment for my
household
10
(13.9)
12
(16.7)
42
(58.3)
8
(11.1)
-
UN
Lighting System
Light supply from governments power source is
accessible
16
(22.2)
13
(18.1)
41
(56.9)
2
(2.4)
-
UN
Provision of lighting in my house through a generating-
set is affordable
4
(5.6)
4
(5.6)
42
(58.2)
22
(30.6)
-
UN
There is constant supply from power source which is
affordable.
5
(6.9)
6
(8.9)
43
(59.7)
18
(25.0)
-
UN
Water Sources
Sinking of borehole is much affordable for my household
16
(22.2)
2
(2.8)
42
(53.8)
12
(16.4)
-
UN
Borehole is not accessible due to cost of sinking it
1
(1.4)
10
(13.9)
50
(69.4)
11
(15.3)
-
UN
There is access to portable pipe-borne water supply in
my community.
16
(22.2)
11
(15.3)
42
(58.3)
3
(4.2)
-
UN
There is water supply from tanker to the community at a
cost which is affordable
16
(22.2)
4
(5.6)
41
(56.9)
11
(15.6)
-
UN
Cooking Sources
Maintenance of kerosene stove is not affordable.
-
-
43
(59.7)
29
(40.3)
-
UN
Cooking with charcoal pot is much better for my
household
-
1
(1.4)
42
(58.3)
29
(40.3)
-
UN
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I prefer to use gas for cooking because it saves time in
cooking and its affordable
29
(40.3)
2
(2.8)
41
(56.9)
-
-
UN
Electronic Appliances
Essential appliances which are affordable are procured
for my family
-
9
(12.5)
51
(70.8)
12
(16.7)
-
UN
Home and cooking appliances are useful to my household
for preservation purposes
-
4
(5.6)
51
(70.8)
17
(23.6)
-
UN
Children's Education
I can afford quality education for my wards
-
14
(19.4)
52
(72.2)
6
(8.3)
-
UN
I have access to higher education for my wards in my
community
2
(2.8)
4
(5.6)
57
(79.2)
9
(12.5)
-
UN
Source: Field Survey, 2024
Regression/Inferential Analysis
Chi-square Analyses of the Dependence of the livelihood of Operators on Indigenous MSMEs in Lagos State
Pearson’s chi-square test results (Table 7) indicated that, affordability of food ((χ
2
= 19.69, df = 9); Adequate
Number of daily meals (χ
2
= 83.89, df = 9), household access to a functional motorcycle/vehicle (χ
2
= 45.19, df
= 9) and access to Public transportation (χ
2
= 17.49, df = 9) among IAS operators is significantly dependent on
their business monthly revenue but improvement in their Housing type, maintenance of their accommodation,
access to portable pipe-borne, education for their wards, Health conditions, access to supply of power, and their
ability to acquire essential appliances were not.
Secondly, Housing type (χ
2
= 14.75, df = 4); improvement in accommodation (χ
2
= 13.65, df = 6), of IAS
operators is significantly dependent on the growth of the IAS business (Table 4.6). In contrast, the affordability
of food, an Adequate Number of daily meals, household access to a functional motorcycle/vehicle, access to
Public transportation, access to portable pipe-borne water, education for their wards, Health conditions, access
to a supply of power, and their ability to acquire essential appliances were not.
Thirdly, Food affordability (χ
2
= 197.60, df = 10); Adequate Number of daily meals (χ
2
= 94.76, df = 15);
Improvement in accommodation (χ
2
= 37.45, df = 15); access to portable water (χ
2
= 30.47, df = 15); access to
public transportation (χ
2
= 38.25, df = 15); better Health conditions (χ
2
= 40.39, df = 10) and ability to Afford
essential appliances (χ
2
= 39.37, df = 10) among IAS operators is significantly dependent on their Customer
Types (CT). However, access to a supply of power, Access to functional motorcycle/ vehicle, and education for
their wards were not available (Table 4.6).
Fourthly, adequate Number of daily meals (χ
2
= 114.17, df = 75); Housing type (χ
2
= 203.69, df = 75); access to
portable water (χ
2
= 30.47, df = 15); household access to a functional motorcycle/vehicle (χ
2
= 94.85, df = 75) ;
better Health conditions (χ
2
= 40.39, df = 10); Affordable power supply (χ
2
= 107.06, df = 75) and ability to
Afford essential appliances (χ
2
= 39.37, df = 15) among IAS operators is significantly dependent on their
Personal Income (PI) from the IAS (Table 7). Still, education for their wards was not (Table 4.6).
Lastly, affordability of sinking borehole meals (χ
2
= 25.12, df = 12), among IAS operators is significantly
dependent on their Staff strength (Table 7) but Food affordability, Number of daily meals, Housing type
improvement in their Housing type, maintenance of their accommodation, access to portable pipe-borne,
education for their wards, Health conditions, access to supply of power, and their ability to acquire essential
appliances were not (Table ).
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Table 7: Chi-square Analyses of the Dependence of the livelihood of Operators on Indigenous MSMEs in
Lagos State
Indices of
Livelihood
Indices of the indigenous apprenticeship system Performance
Business
Monthly
Revenue
(BMR)
Business
Growth (BG)
Monthly
Personal
Income (MPI)
Staff Strength
(SS)
Customer Types
(CT)
Food affordability
χ
2
=19.69; df =
9; (0.020)
*
χ
2
= 6.25; df
= 6; (0.395)
ns
χ
2
=55.65:df =
75; (0.954)
ns
χ
2
=6.68; df =
8; (0.571)
ns
χ
2
=196.48; df =
15; (0.000)
*
No. of daily meals
χ
2
=5.39; df = 9;
(0.799)
ns
χ
2
=1.72; df =
6 ;(0.943)
ns
χ
2
= 62.75; df =
75 ;(0.834)
ns
χ
2
= 6.47; df =
12; (0.891)
ns
χ
2
= 94.76; df =
15; (0.000)
*
Charcoal pot is
better
χ
2
=83.89; df =
9; (0.000)
*
χ
2
= 0.97; df
= 6; (0.986)
ns
χ
2
= 114.17; df
= 75; (0.002)
*
χ
2
= 13.42; df =
12; (0.339)
ns
χ
2
= 9.76; df =
15; (0.834)
ns
Housing type
improved
χ
2
= 9.714: df =
9; (0.374)
ns
χ
2
=14.75; df
= 6; (0.022)
*
χ
2
= 203.69; df
= 75; (0.002)
*
χ
2
= 3.85; df =
12; (0.986)
ns
χ
2
= 33.09; df =
15; (0.005)
*
Affordable
Housing Mtce
cost
χ
2
=10.19; df =
9; (0.335)
ns
χ
2
=14.29; df
= 6; (0.027)
*
χ
2
= 206.01; df =
75; (0.003)
*
χ
2
= 4.54; df =
12; (0.971)
ns
χ
2
= 37.58; df =
15; (0.001)
*
Accommodation
Improvement
χ
2
=10.57; df =
9; (0.306)
ns
χ
2
=13.75; df
= 6; (0.032)
*
χ
2
= 131.73: df =
75; (0.001)
*
χ
2
= 5.14; df =
12; (0.953)
ns
χ
2
= 37.45; df =
15; (0.001)
*
Access to portable
pipe -borne water
χ
2
=15.58; df =
9; (0.076)
ns
χ
2
= 6.12; df
= 6; (.409)
ns
χ
2
= 101.47; df =
75; (0.023)
*
χ
2
= 8.07; df =
12; (0.780)
ns
χ
2
= 30.47; df =
15; (0.011)
*
Water supply
from tanker
χ
2
=8.67; df = 9;
(0.459)
ns
χ
2
= 3.47; df
= 6; (0.748)
ns
χ
2
= 126.64; df =
75; (0.001)
*
χ
2
= 25.42; df =
12; (0.013)
*
χ
2
= 30.41; df =
15; (0.001)
*
Affordability of
sinking borehole
χ
2
=6.63: df = 9;
(0.679)
ns
χ
2
= 5.67; df
= 6; (0.461)
ns
χ
2
= 90.88; df =
75; (0.02)
*
χ
2
= 19.77; df =
12; (0.071)
ns
χ
2
= 48.65; df =
15; (0.004)
*
Affordability of
quality education
for wards
χ
2
=7.34; df = 9;
(0.601)
ns
χ
2
= 6.23; df
= 6; (0.397)
ns
χ
2
= 54.65; df =
75; (0.963)
ns
χ
2
= 15.69; df =
12; (0.206)
ns
χ
2
= 32.07; df =
15; (0.106)
ns
Access to
motorcycle/
vehicle
χ
2
= 45.19; df =
9; (0.004)
*
χ
2
= 2.98; df
= 6; (0.911)
ns
χ
2
= 94.85; df =
75; (0.061)
*
χ
2
= 3.36; df =
12; (0.992)
ns
χ
2
= 1.65; df =
15; (1.000)
ns
Good Public
transportation
χ
2
=17.49; df =
9; (0.042)
*
χ
2
= 6.04; df
= 6; (0.418)
ns
χ
2
= 54.27; df =
75; (0.966)
ns
χ
2
= 10.17; df
= 12; (0.600)
ns
χ
2
= 38.25; df =
15; (0.001)
*
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Better Health
conditions
χ
2
=7.32; df = 6;
(0.29)
ns
χ
2
= 5.36; df
= 4; (0.252)
ns
χ
2
= 43.0; df =
50; (0.048)
*
χ
2
= 3.81; df =
8; (0.874)
ns
χ
2
= 40.39; df =
10 (0.000)
*
affordable
Government
hospital bills
χ
2
=9.26; df = 9;
(0.413)
ns
χ
2
= 5.04; df
= 6; (0.539)
ns
χ
2
= 63.62; df =
75; (0.823)
ns
χ
2
= 11.91; df =
12; (0.452)
ns
χ
2
= 49.27; df =
15; (0.001)
*
Constant and
affordable power
supply
χ
2
=1.79; df = 9;
(0.994)
ns
χ
2
= 5.78; df
= 6; (0.448)
ns
χ
2
= 107.06; df =
75; (0.009)
*
χ
2
= 5.35; df =
12; (0.945)
ns
χ
2
= 32.32; df =
15; (0.006)
ns
Affordability of
generating set
χ
2
= 6.39; df = 9;
(0.700)
ns
χ
2
= 12.03; df
= 6; (0.061)
ns
χ
2
= 102.15; df =
75; (0.020)
*
χ
2
= 18.39; df =
12; (0.104)
ns
χ
2
= 28.76; df =
15; (0.017)
*
Affordability of
Essential
appliances
χ
2
=10.62; df =
9; (0.302)
ns
χ
2
= 1.96; df
= 6; (0.932)
ns
χ
2
= 109.96; df =
75; (0.005)
*
χ
2
= 4.99; df =
12; (0.958)
ns
χ
2
= 39.37; df =
15; (0.001)
*
NB* (p values in parentheses; ns = not significant and *= Significant at p<0.05; χ
2
= Chi-square value; df=
Degree of freedom)
Source: Analysis of Data from Field Survey, 2024.
Chi-square Analyses of the Dependence of the livelihood of Apprentice on Indigenous MSMEs in Lagos State
Pearson’s chi-square test results (Table 8) indicated that, Health expenses per month (χ
2
= 135.66, df = 80);
afford government hospitals (χ
2
= 13.14, df = 9); Children expenses per month (χ
2
= 97.97, df = 53); Government
expenses per month (χ
2
= 98.20, df = 24); Number of daily meals (χ
2
= 55.26, df = 16); Food Affordability (χ
2
= 61.68, df = 24) and Improvement in accommodation (χ
2
= 26.17, df = 9); Access to Governments power
supply (χ
2
= 49.85, df = 24) affordable power Generating set (χ
2
= 52.21, df = 24); Affordable water (χ
2
= 55.81,
df = 24) ; afford Charcoal for cooking (χ
2
= 13.94, df = 15); affordable Essential appliances (χ
2
= 23.32, df =
15); Afford Quality education (χ
2
= 30.30, df = 16) and Access to a motorcycle/ vehicle (χ
2
= 39.53, df = 16)
of the apprentices of the IAS in Lagos state is significantly dependent on their Personal Income (PI) from the
IAS (Table 8 ).
Also, Health expenses per month (χ
2
= 20.79, df = 6); Adequate Number of daily meals (χ
2
= 83.89, df = 12),
and affordability of Charcoal for cooking (χ
2
= 10.16, df = 4) of the apprentices of the IAS is significantly
dependent on the monthly revenue from the business but improvement in their Housing type, maintenance of
their accommodation, access to portable water, education for their wards, Health conditions, access to supply of
power, and their ability to acquire essential appliances were not.
The chi-square test results (Table 4.14) revealed further that all the indices of livelihood of the apprentices of
IAS i.e. Health expenses per month (χ
2
= 31.98, df = 10); afford government hospitals (χ
2
= 48.88, df = 7);
Children education expenses per month (χ
2
= 31.86, df = 10); Food Affordability (χ
2
= 23.52, df = 3) and
Improvement in accommodation (χ
2
= 26.17, df = 3); Access to Governments power supply (χ
2
= 36.77, df =
10); affordable power Generating set (χ
2
= 51.22, df = 15); Affordable water (χ
2
= 50.77, df = 15 ; afford
Charcoal for cooking (χ
2
= 28.33, df = 15); affordable Essential appliances (χ
2
= 31.38, df = 15); education for
their wards (χ
2
= 49.88, df = 10) and Access to a motorcycle/ vehicle (χ
2
= 19.89, df = 3) of the apprentices of
the IAS in Lagos state is significantly dependent on the support received by the apprentices of IAS and
While their Health expenses per month (χ
2
= 96.48, df = 10); Children education expenses/month (χ
2
= 94.76, df
= 75); Access to Governments power supply (χ
2
= 30.47, df = 4); Afford Charcoal for cooking (χ
2
= 30.47, df =
10); affordable Essential appliances (χ
2
= 30.47, df = 10); of the apprentices of the IAS were significantly
dependent on the growth of the Business (BG).
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
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Table 8 : Chi-square Analyses of the Dependence of the livelihood of Apprentices on Indigenous MSMEs
in Lagos State
Indices of indigenous apprenticeship system Performance
Monthly Business
Revenue (BMR)
Monthly Personal
Income (MPI)
Apprentices
support
Business growth
(BG)
χ
2
=20.79;df = 6;
(0.020)
*
χ
2
= 135.66;df =
80;(0.001)
*
χ
2
= 31.98;df =
10;(0.004)
*
χ
2
= 96.48;df =
10;(0.000)
*
χ
2
=10.57;df =12;
(0.306)
ns
χ
2
= 13;14:df = 9;
(0.004)
*
χ
2
= 48.88; df =7
(0.001)
*
χ
2
= 37.45d;f =
10;(0.001)
*
χ
2
= 5.39;df = 12;
(0.799)
ns
χ
2
= 97.97;df =
53;(0.048)
*
χ
2
= 31.96;df =
10;(0.001)
*
χ
2
= 94.76;df =
75;(0.001)
*
χ
2
= 1.34;df = 8
(0.137)
ns
χ
2
= 98.20;df =
24;(0.004)
*
39.66;df = 10;
(0.002)
*
22.10;df = 24;
(0.335)
ns
χ
2
= 83.89;df =
12;(0.001)
*
χ
2
= 55.26;df =
16;(0.002)
*
χ
2
= 14.74;df =
4;(0.004)
*
χ
2
= 9.76;df =
10;(0.834)
ns
χ
2
= 10.38;df =
12;(0.582)
ns
χ
2
= 61.68;df =
24;(0.012)
*
χ
2
= 10.01;df =
3;(0.018)
*
χ
2
= 1.51;df =
10;(1.00)
ns
χ
2
= 59.56;df =
12;(0.003)
*
χ
2
= 26.17;df = 9;
(0.001)
*
χ
2
= 26.17;df =
3;(0.002)
*
χ
2
= 8.06;df =
10;(0.921)
ns
12.08;df = 12;
(0.489)
ns
49.85; df = 24;
(0.001)
*
36.77;df = 10;
(0.004)
*
30.47;df = 4;
(0.011)
*
χ
2
= 11.86;df =
12;(0.459)
ns
χ
2
= 52.21;df =
24; (0.001)
*
χ
2
= 51.22; df =
15;(0.003)
*
χ
2
= 30.41;df =
4;(0.001)
*
χ
2
=7.34;df =12;
(0.496)
ns
χ
2
= 64.77; df =
24;(0.001)
*
χ
2
=64.11;df =
10;(0.001)
*
χ
2
=32.07;df =
10;(0.106)
ns
χ
2
= 12.22;df
=12;(0.428)
ns
χ
2
= 55.81;df = 24
;(0.000)
*
χ
2
= 50.77;df =
15;(0.001)
*
χ
2
= 2.41;df =
10;(0.097)
ns
χ
2
= 10.16; df =
4;(0.038)
*
χ
2
= 13.94; df =
5;(0.028)
*
χ
2
= 28.33;df =
15;(0.001)
*
χ
2
= 38.25; df =
10;(0.001)
*
χ
2
= 7.32;df = 8;
(0.29)
ns
χ
2
= 16.74;df = 5;
(0.001)
*
χ
2
= 19.92;df =
3;(0.002)
*
χ
2
= 40.39;df =
10;(0.000)
*
χ
2
= 8.47;df = 8;
(0.389)
ns
χ
2
= 30.53; df =
16; (0.001)
*
χ
2
= 31.38; df =
15; (0.004)
*
χ
2
= 49.27; df =
10; (0.001)
*
χ
2
= 5.28; df = 8;
(0.970)
ns
χ
2
= 30.29; df = 16
; (0.017)
*
χ
2
= 49.88; df =
10; (0.002)
*
χ
2
= 1.65; df =
10; (0.285)
ns
χ
2
= 10.88;df = 8;
(0.208)
ns
χ
2
= 39.53; df =
16;(0.001)
*
χ
2
= 19.89;df =
3;(0.003)
*
χ
2
= 32.32;df =
10;(0.006)
ns
χ
2
= 9.49; df = 8;
(0.302)
ns
χ
2
= 14.09; df = 5;
(0.003)
*
χ
2
= 21.11;df =
4;(0.002)
*
χ
2
= 28.76;df =
10;(0.017)
*
NB* (p value in the bracket; ns = not significant and *= Significant at p<0.05)
Source: Analysis of Data from Field Survey, 2024.
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Qualitative Findings
Qualitative Themes
The thematic analysis of the qualitative data revealed themes such as Heritage & Apprenticeship – Craft rooted
in tradition, passed down generationally. Livelihood Security – Enabled marriage, family, housing, and rental
income. Youth Participation – Still strong; includes graduates and student excursions. It showed that livelihood
impact is strong across all crafts, with documented cases of asset building (housing, rentals)
From some interviews with participants:
• “I got married after I started the work. As you know, marriage involves money; yes, I did not ask anyone
to borrow money for my wedding. God gave me children, whom I am feeding and training. Then, after
that, I built a three-bedroom flat. Then, after that, I have another four single rooms, self-contained, to
rent out to people, which I am collecting the dividends on today, and that is what God has done for me
from this work today”. (Graduate /operator)
• "Yes, I use WhatsApp." “When I post some design on WhatsApp on my Facebook page, most of my
friends will see it and say I like this design. Where do you get it? I make it myself." “This has given
me more individual customers, and I have groups, associations, and clubs as my customers. He also said,
“The Ministry trains members, and after the training for eight weeks, they will empower our members
with equipment. This improved the performance of members' businesses and livelihood.” (Graduate
/Operator)
Interpretation: IAS enhances livelihoods by increasing income, promoting entrepreneurship, and strengthening
resilience through asset acquisition. Quantitative data shows Improved livelihood for graduates and apprentices;
qualitative data provides evidence of this improvement.
Testing of Hypothesis
This study investigated two null hypotheses (H₀₁–H₀₂) to determine the influence of the Indigenous
Apprenticeship System (IAS) on the livelihood outcomes of operators and apprentices of indigenous MSMEs in
Lagos State. The hypotheses were tested using Pearson’s chi-square analyses.
H₀₁: The Indigenous Apprenticeship System has no impact on the livelihood of the operators of indigenous
MSMEs in Lagos State.
The results showed that IAS operators reported significant improvements in livelihood outcomes. Operators
indicated enhanced access to food, health services, children’s education, and utilities. Chi-square results
demonstrated strong associations between business revenue, personal income, and key indicators of livelihood,
including food affordability, housing, and healthcare (Onu et al., 2021; Dabo, 2022).
Decision: Reject H₀₁. The IAS has a significant positive impact on the livelihoods of operators.
H₀₂: The Indigenous Apprenticeship System has no impact on the livelihood of the apprentices of indigenous
MSMEs in Lagos State.
The results showed that IAS apprentices reported significant improvements in livelihood outcomes. Apprentices’
personal income significantly influenced nearly all livelihood indices, while financial support remained a
decisive factor for sustaining welfare. Chi-square results demonstrated strong associations between personal
income and key indicators of livelihood, including food affordability, housing, and healthcare (Onu et al., 2021;
Dabo, 2022).
Decision: Reject H₀₂. The IAS has a significant positive impact on the livelihood of apprentices.
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DISCUSSION
Socio-Economic Background of Indigenous MSME Operators
The socio-economic profile of Indigenous Apprenticeship System (IAS) graduates and MSME operators in
Lagos State highlights important demographic and structural patterns. Female participation was notably higher,
consistent with broader evidence of the rising involvement of African women in MSMEs and informal
economies (UNECA, 2019; Langevang & Gough, 2012). However, with 46% of operators aged 50 years and
above, there is evidence of a decline in youth engagement, as younger Nigerians increasingly prefer digital and
service-based ventures over traditional crafts. This aligns with studies documenting youth transitions away from
crafts and toward digital entrepreneurship in Nigeria and across Africa (McKenzie & Puerto, 2021; Osei-
Assibey, 2014).
Lagos, which accounts for the highest concentration of MSMEs in Nigeria, remains the nation’s hub of cultural
and entrepreneurial diversity (PwC, 2020; SMEDAN/NBS, 2020). Long-term residency fosters trust and
customer loyalty, strengthening MSME sustainability, reflecting wider evidence on the importance of social
capital in enterprise resilience (Putnam, 2000; Fafchamps, 2004). Religion also plays a role in shaping MSME
trust networks, consistent with findings that faith-based and communal affiliations structure business relations
in West African contexts (Ezenwoke & Ojo, 2021).
Craft analysis shows that tie-dye remains more popular than cane weaving due to its cultural symbolism and
market adaptability. Textile-related microenterprises are widely recognized as both culturally significant and
economically resilient (Langevang & Gough, 2012; Hansen, 2013). In contrast, cane weaving faces declining
demand due to cheaper substitutes and negative youth perceptions, necessitating design innovation and market
repositioning—challenges consistent with broader studies on craft industries in Africa (Grimm et al., 2012).
Marital status and household dynamics also significantly influence MSME performance. Married operators
benefit from stronger family and community networks that provide labor, credit, and market access, echoing
evidence on social embeddedness in African enterprises (Meagher, 2010). Moderate household sizes also
enhance sustainability by reducing financial strain, consistent with household enterprise literature (Banerjee &
Duflo, 2019). Educational attainment is also pivotal: secondary education provides literacy and management
skills critical for MSME operation, although limited formal education constrains digital adaptation, underscoring
the need for continuous training and digital inclusion (UNESCO, 2021; Rolleston & Oketch, 2020).
Finally, business longevity reflects a tension between resilience and succession. Long-established MSMEs show
persistence but face challenges with generational transfer and innovation, while younger firms are more
adaptable but vulnerable. These dynamics align with African SME studies, which emphasise the need for
succession planning, innovation, and tailored policy support to ensure long-term sustainability and inclusive
growth (Grimm et al., 2012; Kato, 2024).
Socioeconomics of Indigenous MSME Apprentices
Recent scholarship confirms that gender distribution in Nigerian apprenticeships is powerfully shaped by trade
concentration. Women disproportionately dominate caregiving, household services, and fashion-related sectors,
while men are more engaged in mechanical and technical trades—an enduring pattern in African informal
apprenticeship systems (ILO, 2012; Walther, 2017). This study similarly found a higher proportion of female
apprentices, particularly in tie-and-dye, a craft with strong cultural and commercial appeal in Lagos, reflecting
the wider feminisation of textile and garment-related microenterprises in West Africa (Langevang & Gough,
2012).
The age profile revealed a modal range of 10–20 years, consistent with evidence that Nigerian youth increasingly
view apprenticeships as alternatives to scarce formal employment. Studies on the Igbo Apprenticeship System
and informal vocational training confirm its role as a primary pathway to entrepreneurship for younger cohorts
(Irene, 2024; McKenzie & Puerto, 2021). Many apprentices were also internal migrants, attracted to Lagos’
economic and cultural diversity, aligning with regional findings that migration is a driver of vocational
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participation and enterprise formation in African cities (Tacoli, 2012).
Educational attainment was notably higher than in earlier studies, with over three-quarters completing secondary
education. This reflects broader improvements in literacy and numeracy among African youth entering informal
training and enterprise, enhancing adaptability and competitiveness (UNESCO, 2021; Rolleston & Oketch,
2020). Finally, most apprentices came from low- to middle-income households of 4–6 members, a pattern
consistent with household-based support structures in Nigeria that underpin resilience and facilitate entry into
apprenticeship and MSMEs (Banerjee & Duflo, 2019).
Indigenous Apprenticeship Systems and Livelihood of Indigenous Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
Operators
The perception of IAS graduates regarding livelihood outcomes indicates significant improvements across
multiple dimensions. Nearly all operators reported enhanced food security, while a majority affirmed better
access to healthcare through government facilities. Most also noted improved access to electricity and ownership
of household utilities and appliances, suggesting that apprenticeship participation directly contributes to
improved living conditions.
Statistical analysis confirmed strong linkages between business performance and livelihood indicators. Monthly
revenue significantly influenced the affordability of food, transportation, and household utilities, while business
growth improved housing quality and standards of accommodation. Personal income had the broadest impact,
shaping access to nutrition, healthcare, education, and household appliances. Customer base diversification also
enhanced access to food security, housing, transportation, and healthcare. These findings are consistent with ILO
studies showing that informal apprenticeship can reduce household vulnerability by equipping operators with
employable skills and cost-offsetting capabilities (ILO, 2012; Walther, 2017).
The results further affirm that income stability underpins improved nutrition, reduced food insecurity, and better
living standards, corroborating cross-country evidence in World Development and Food Policy (Headey, 2013;
Herforth et al., 2020; FAO et al., 2021). Business growth similarly fosters welfare, social stability, and
community development, reflecting findings from sub-Saharan Africa on the relationship between MSME
expansion and household welfare (Grimm et al., 2012; Kato, 2024). Moreover, a diverse customer base
strengthens resilience, consistent with SME survival and resilience literature (Msomi, 2024).
Qualitative evidence reinforces these patterns: the Chairman of the Cane Weavers Association in Lagos
explained that cane weaving enabled him to finance marriage, raise children, and acquire housing and rental
properties, underscoring the financial stability derived from indigenous crafts (KII, 2025). Ultimately, personal
income remains the most pivotal determinant of livelihood, with income stability central to sustaining wellness
and productivity among MSME operators (FAO et al., 2021; Herforth et al., 2020).
Indigenous Apprenticeship Systems and the Livelihood of Indigenous Micro, Small and Medium
Enterprises Apprentices
The perceptions of IAS apprentices regarding their livelihoods reveal limited financial independence, as many
remain dependent on external support. Crosstabulation and chi-square analysis revealed that personal income
had the most significant influence, shaping nearly all livelihood indicators, including healthcare, education, food,
and housing. Monthly business revenue had a more targeted impact on health expenses, daily meals,
accommodation, and cooking fuel. At the same time, training support emerged as a critical determinant of food
security, utilities, and access to healthcare. Business growth also enhanced access to healthcare, education,
transportation, and household resources.
These findings suggest that apprentices’ livelihoods cannot be attributed solely to their business revenues, given
their continued reliance on family stipends and external assistance. Similar dynamics are documented in studies
of informal apprenticeship and youth livelihoods, where external support and remittances help apprentices afford
essential goods and services (ILO, 2012; Walther, 2017). Financial support is thus pivotal, enabling apprentices
to meet basic needs, save, and prepare for future ventures. Stable income, whether personal or external, also
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improves health behaviours and uptake of preventive care, consistent with wider evidence linking income to
nutrition, healthcare, and housing (Herforth et al., 2020; FAO et al., 2021).
While business revenue provides financial stability, its variability in informal sectors may weaken long-term
welfare outcomes, as apprentices often prioritise short-term consumption over investment. Evidence from
Journal of Development Economics and Journal of African Economies shows that households in low-income
contexts smooth consumption in response to income volatility, often at the expense of long-term asset
accumulation (Deaton, 1992; Beegle et al., 2006). Nevertheless, business growth contributes to more than just
income, fostering a professional identity, pride, and informal welfare benefits, including healthcare and skills
upgrading, thereby enhancing both psychosocial and financial well-being (Kato, 2024; Msomi, 2024).
Summary Livelihood Outcomes of IAS Graduates and Apprentices
The socio-economic characteristics and perceptions of IAS graduates and apprentices in Lagos State demonstrate
a clear relationship between apprenticeship and livelihood outcomes. Gendered trade segmentation remains
strong, with women disproportionately engaged in service and fashion-related ventures, while men concentrate
in technical and mechanical trades—patterns widely observed in informal apprenticeship systems across Africa
(ILO, 2012; ILO, 2013). Research on the Igbo Apprenticeship System similarly shows how younger Nigerians
enter apprenticeships as a pathway to entrepreneurship in the face of limited white-collar opportunities (Irene,
2024).
Lagos remains Nigeria’s hub for MSMEs. Official data show that the state consistently hosts the highest number
of enterprises in the country (PwC, 2024; SMEDAN/NBS, 2020). Educational attainment is improving among
apprentices and operators, with most having at least secondary schooling, reflecting a broader shift in Nigerian
vocational education that emphasises employability and enterprise performance (Ejikpese & Effiom, 2024).
Household sizes typically ranged from four to six, providing cultural and economic support networks that
cushioned entrepreneurial risks and sustained apprenticeships.
For IAS graduates, the gains in livelihood were substantial. Nearly all reported improved food security,
healthcare access, and ownership of household assets. Statistical analysis confirmed that monthly revenue,
business growth, personal income, and customer base were strongly associated with improvements in welfare,
including food, housing, education, and utilities. These findings align with cross-country evidence in World
Development and Food Policy, which consistently link income stability and agricultural/enterprise revenues to
dietary diversity, health, and reduced vulnerability (Headey, 2013; Dillon et al., 2015; FAO et al., 2021; Herforth
et al., 2020). Customer diversification and market resilience further enhance welfare outcomes, aligning with
broader studies on SME resilience in sub-Saharan Africa (Kato, 2024; Msomi, 2024).
For apprentices, outcomes were more constrained. Although personal income significantly affected most welfare
indicators, training support—including stipends, materials, and mentorship—proved crucial in shaping access
to healthcare, education, food, and utilities. This resonates with ILO syntheses on upgrading informal
apprenticeship systems, which stress the importance of structured support in raising productivity and welfare
(ILO, 2012; ILO, 2013). Business revenue was crucial for food and accommodation, but volatility in informal
sector incomes often undermined long-term investments. Evidence from the Journal of Development Economics
and the Journal of African Economies confirms that households’ smooth consumption in response to shocks,
prioritising immediate needs over durable investments (Deaton, 1992; Beegle et al., 2006). Nevertheless,
working in growing MSMEs improved apprentices’ psychosocial outcomes—pride, security, and professional
identity—echoing findings from SME resilience research that growth fosters both financial and non-pecuniary
wellbeing (Aliu et al., 2024).
IAS graduates more directly convert business success into household welfare, while apprentices remain reliant
on external support and host-firm growth trajectories. Effective policy must therefore combine income stability,
financial inclusion, and training subsidies with market access strategies that promote growth and customer
diversification, ensuring both material and psychosocial well-being.
The key findings are summarised by hypothesis as follows:
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1. Impact of IAS on Operators' Livelihoods (H₀₁)
o Operators reported improved capacity to afford food, healthcare, education, and utilities.
o Pearson’s chi-square analysis confirmed strong relationships between monthly revenue/income and
livelihood indicators.
o Decision: H₀₁ was rejected — IAS has a significant positive impact on the livelihood of operators.
2. Impact of IAS on Apprentices' Livelihoods (H₀₂)
o Apprentices’ personal income and financial support significantly influenced their welfare
outcomes.
o Pearson’s chi-square analysis confirmed strong relationships between monthly revenue/income and
livelihood indicators.
o Decision: H₀₂ was rejected — IAS has a significant positive impact on the livelihood of apprentices.
CONCLUSION
This study aimed to investigate the impact of Indigenous Apprenticeship Systems (IAS) on the livelihoods of
graduates and apprentices in Lagos State. Drawing on mixed-methods evidence, the research highlights IAS as
a vital mechanism of skills transfer, entrepreneurship incubation, and livelihood enhancement in Nigeria’s
commercial capital. Key findings indicate that IAS has a significant impact on the economic outcomes of
apprentices and graduates. Graduates reported higher incomes, greater access to enterprise ownership, and
stronger resilience against economic shocks compared to non-apprentices. The study further confirmed that IAS
nurtures not only technical competence but also tacit entrepreneurial knowledge and trust networks, which are
central to survival in Lagos’ competitive business environment. However, the study also identified that while
IAS thrives on cultural legitimacy, its capacity to scale and adapt to modern economic pressures requires greater
institutional support. From a theoretical standpoint, the findings reaffirm Human Capital Theory, Social Capital
Theory, and Person–Environment Fit Theory as explanatory lenses: IAS increases productivity through skill
development, embeds apprentices within supportive networks, and aligns with cultural norms of reciprocity.
However, the evidence also suggests that these theories must account for institutional mediations to explain
livelihood outcomes in Lagos fully.
IAS remains indispensable for inclusive development in Lagos State. It provides a culturally rooted, cost-
effective, and socially legitimate pathway to ensuring the livelihood of youths and enterprise growth. With
targeted reforms, IAS can be repositioned as a hybrid skills and entrepreneurship model that complements formal
TVET and government interventions in ensuring sustainable livelihood in Lagos State.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Policy and Government Support
• Formal Recognition of IAS: The Lagos State Ministry of Wealth Creation & Employment (MWCE)
should develop ICT-focused, competency-based certification frameworks of the indigenous
apprenticeship systems in collaboration with trade associations and vocational boards, ensuring the
youths embrace indigenous apprenticeships for employments that ensure sustainable livelihoods.
• Create and support incentives for apprentices' enrolment in indigenous crafts.
Strengthening Trade Associations and Apprenticeship Inclusion
• Inclusion of all the indigenous crafts businesses in the Lagos state trade associations
• Capacity Building for Associations: Provide training for the associations to absorb and nurture more
apprentices
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Digitalisation and Modernisation
• Digital Skills Integration: Introduce basic ICT training into IAS curricula, equipping apprentices to
leverage e-commerce, mobile money, and digital bookkeeping.
• Digital Record Systems: Encourage masters and associations to maintain digital records of apprentices,
settlements, and business outcomes—creating a database that can strengthen credit access.
Resilience and Sustainability
• Shock-Responsive Safety Nets: Partner with micro-insurance providers and cooperative societies to
provide apprentices and graduates with buffers against sudden shocks (e.g., illness, fire, market
disruptions).
• Green Skills Apprenticeship: Align IAS with emerging green economy opportunities (Indigenous crafts,
sustainable fashion, recycling crafts) to future-proof livelihoods.
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