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A Qualitative Study of Counseling Students’ Experiences with
Neurofeedback: Learning, Self-Efficacy, and Perceptions of
Neurocounseling
Siti Bidasari binti Yahya, Samsiah binti Mohd Jais
Faculty of Human Development, Sultan Idris Education University, 35900 Tanjong Malim, Perak,
Malaysia
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000125
Received: 01 October 2025; Accepted: 06 October 2025; Published: 05 November 2025
ABSTRACT
Neurofeedback is a neuroscience-based intervention that trains individuals to consciously regulate brain
activity and has gained increasing attention in global mental health care. However, its integration into
counselor education in Malaysia remains very limited. This qualitative study aims to explore the experiences
of Master’s students in Clinical Mental Health Counseling who participated in neurofeedback training. Guided
by Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory and Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory, the study examines how
students engage with the training process, their confidence and sense of self-efficacy in applying
neurofeedback, and their perceptions of its relevance to future counseling practice. Data were collected
through semi-structured interviews with five participants and analyzed using thematic analysis. Three main
themes were identified: (1) transformative learning experiences through hands-on neurofeedback training; (2)
self-efficacy in understanding and applying the technique; and (3) perceptions of neurocounseling as a
complement to talk therapy, particularly for clients with trauma or difficulty expressing emotions. While the
training provided meaningful experiences, participants also reported challenges such as limited access to
equipment and curriculum constraints. The findings indicate that experiential neurofeedback training fosters
deep reflection, strengthens clinical confidence, and broadens students’ perspectives on integrative counseling
approaches. This study highlights the need for curriculum reform, faculty development, and institutional
support to bridge existing training gaps, offering a valuable foundation for advancing neuroscience-informed
counselor education in Malaysia.
Keywords: neurofeedback, experiential learning, self-efficacy, counselor education, neurocounseling, clinical
mental health counseling
ABSTRACT
Neurofeedback merupakan intervensi berasaskan neurosains yang melatih individual megamall activity otak
secara sedar, dan semakin mendapat perhatian dalam bidang kesihatan mental di peringkat global. Namun,
integrasinya dalam pendidikan kaunseling di Malaysia masih sangat terhad. Kajian kualitatif ini bertujuan
meneroka pengalaman pelajar Sarjana Kaunseling Kesihatan Mental Klinikal yang mengikuti latihan
neurofeedback. Berpandukan Teori Pembelajaran Eksperiensial Kolb dan Teori Keberkesanan Kendiri
Bandura, kajian ini meneliti bagaimana pelajar menghayati pengalaman latihan, menilai tahap keyakinan serta
keberkesanan kendiri dalam penggunaan neurofeedback, dan membincangkan kesesuaiannya dalam amalan
kaunseling masa hadapan. Data diperoleh melalui temu bual separa berstruktur dengan lima orang peserta dan
dianalisis menggunakan kaedah analysis tematik. Tiga tema utama dikenal pasti: (1) pengalaman pembelajaran
transformasi melalui latihan practical neurofeedback; (2) keberkesanan kendiri dalam memahami dan
mengaplikasikan Teknik; dan (3) persepsi terhadap neurokaunseling sebagai pelengkap terapi lisan, khususnya
bagi klien trauma atau yang sukar meluahkan emosi. Walaupun latihan ini memberikan pengalaman yang
bermanfaat, peserta turut melaporkan cabaran seperti akses terhad kepada peralatan serta kekangan kurikulum.
Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa latihan neurofeedback secara eksperiensial dapat memupuk refleksi
mendalam, mengukuhkan keyakinan klinikal, dan memperluas perspektif pelajar terhadap pendekatan
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kaunseling integratif. Kajian ini mencadangkan reformasi kurikulum, pembangunan tenaga pengajar, serta
sokongan institusi bagi merapatkan jurang latihan sedia ada
Kata kunci: neurofeedback, pembelajaran berasaskan pengalaman, kecekapan kendiri, pendidikan kaunselor,
neurokaunseling, kaunseling kesihatan mental klinikal
INTRODUCTION
The integration of neuroscience into mental health care has introduced new methods and perspectives within
the counseling profession. One of these approaches is neurofeedback, a non-invasive technique that uses real-
time monitoring of brain activity to support emotional and cognitive regulation (Panisch & Hai, 2020). While
neurofeedback has been widely applied in clinical practice for conditions such as anxiety, attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), trauma, and depression (Kober et al., 2021), its incorporation into
counselor education remains limited. Counseling and mental health professionals are now expected to go
beyond traditional talk therapy and engage with evidence-based tools that integrate physiological and
psychological processes (Deits-Lebehn et al., 2020; Gennaro, 2019). This study seeks to explore Malaysian
counseling students’ experiences with neurofeedback training, 2 focusing on how they engage with the
learning process, their confidence in applying the technique, and their perceptions of neurocounseling in future
practice.
Research Background
Counselor education has increasingly adopted experiential learning strategies that bridge theoretical
knowledge with practical application. These approaches are essential for cultivating competent mental health
professionals who can respond effectively to diverse and complex client needs. Despite this evolution,
exposure to neuroscience based or brain-informed interventions remains limited in many counselor training
programs (Spears, Hammond, & Field, 2024). One such intervention is neurofeedback also known as
electroencephalography (EEG) biofeedback, a non-invasive technique that provides real-time feedback on
brainwave activity, enabling individuals to self-regulate their cognitive and emotional states (Kober,
Schweiger, Witte, & Neuper, 2021).
Neurofeedback aligns with the framework of neuroscience-informed counseling, or neurocounseling, which
integrates neurobiological understanding with traditional talk therapy to promote holistic, evidence-based
client care (Field, Jones, & Russell-Chapin, 2016). For counseling students, neurofeedback offers not only
insight into the brain’s role in emotion and behavior, but also hands-on opportunities to observe and influence
these processes in real-time, enhancing both self-awareness and clinical competence.
Internationally, particularly in the United States and Europe, universities have made significant strides in
incorporating neurofeedback into counselor education (Romero et al, 2020). Graduate programs have begun
embedding structured neurofeedback modules that include supervised practice, live demonstrations, and
theoretical integration. These initiatives allow students to conduct neurofeedback sessions confidently and
ethically, while deepening their understanding of emotional regulation and complementing conventional
psychotherapy approaches (Bodie, Moon, Ma, & Parker, 2023; Ramey, George, & Russell-Chapin, 2022). This
structured and immersive exposure stands in contrast to Malaysia, where such experiential training remains
rare.
Compared to these international models, Malaysia is still in the early stages of developing neurocounseling.
While Master of Clinical Mental Health Counseling programs provide strong foundations in core areas such
as psychotherapy, assessment, and clinical diagnosis, they lack formal integration of neurofeedback training.
Electroencephalography (EEG) biofeedback is not yet embedded in classroom or practicum components.
Contributing factors include high equipment costs, limited availability of certified trainers, and inadequate
infrastructure (Kelley, Luke, & Barnett, 2021).
As of 2023, fewer than 20 practitioners in Malaysia are certified by the Biofeedback Certification International
Alliance (BCIA), with most being psychiatrists or clinical psychologists rather than counselors (Malaysian
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Society for Clinical Psychology [MSCP], 2023). This professional gap underscores the limited involvement
of counselors in neurofeedback service delivery unlike in countries such as the United States, where counselor
participation is supported through established certification pathways, supervision, and institutional training
opportunities.
Furthermore, Malaysian counselor education programs tend to prioritize traditional modalities such as
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), largely due to curriculum frameworks regulated by the Malaysian
Qualifications Agency (MQA), which leave little room for emerging innovations (Abdul Rahman, Ismail, &
Latif, 2021). In contrast, institutions abroad enjoy greater curricular flexibility, allowing for the integration of
cutting-edge practices such as neurofeedback. Malaysian students interested in such training often must pursue
it privately or overseas, which poses financial and logistical challenges (Che Ahmad, Teoh, & Omar, 2024;
Chua, 2022). Consequently, students are deprived of experiential, neuroscience-informed learning that could
enrich their therapeutic skill set in applying integrated mental health approaches.
In summary, although neurofeedback is gaining recognition internationally as a valuable tool in counselor
training (Panisch & Hai, 2020; Kober et al., 2021), its adoption in Malaysia remains limited (Che Ahmad,
Teoh, & Omar, 2024; Chua, 2022). The lack of structured access, trained faculty, and institutional support
restricts students’ ability to explore neurocounseling as a relevant and evidence-based complement to
conventional counseling methods. To address this gap, the present study examines Malaysian counseling
students’ engagement with neurofeedback training, its impact on their self-efficacy, and their perceptions of
neurocounseling in future practice, guided by the frameworks of experiential learning (Kolb, 1984) and self-
efficacy development (Bandura, 1986).
Problem Statement
Mental health counselors are increasingly encountering clients with trauma, anxiety, and stress-related
disorders, creating a pressing need for brain-based and trauma-responsive approaches to care. Neurofeedback
(NFB), an evidence-based intervention that facilitates self-regulation by monitoring and modifying brain
activity, has shown strong potential for integration into counseling practice (Hammond, 2011). Internationally,
the incorporation of NFB and other neuroscience-informed strategies has been recognized as an important
advancement in counselor education and training.
In Malaysia, however, counselor education remains predominantly focused on traditional therapeutic
modalities, particularly cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), with little to no emphasis on NFB or
neuroscience-informed care (Kober et al., 2021). This stands in contrast to international standards, such as
those outlined by the American Counseling Association (ACA) and the Council for Accreditation of
Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP), which emphasize neuroscience literacy and the
integration of brain-based practices as essential elements of counselor preparation (Russell-Chapin, 2016;
CACREP, 2016).
The lack of neuroscience-informed training in Malaysian counselor education creates a significant gap.
Without exposure to emerging practices such as NFB, graduates risk developing outdated clinical
competencies, limiting their readiness to deliver trauma-responsive and evidence-based care (Russell-Chapin,
2016; Bodie et al., 2023). At the same time, Malaysia’s Pelan Strategik Kesihatan Mental 2020–2025
highlights the need to modernize mental health care by strengthening evidence-based and technologically
supported interventions (Ministry of Health Malaysia, 2020). Similarly, the Lembaga Kaunselor Malaysia
(2021) underscores the importance of continuous professional development to ensure counselors remain
competent in meeting evolving client needs. Without curriculum reform, Malaysia risks falling behind
international standards and reducing access to innovative interventions that could strengthen national mental
health services (Thibault & Raz, 2017; Aini Ismafairus et al., 2020).
This issue is further compounded by structural and systemic challenges. One barrier is curriculum rigidity.
Counselor education programs are tightly regulated by the Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA), which
prioritizes conventional modalities such as CBT, leaving limited room for the integration of emerging
approaches like NFB (Abdul Rahman, Ismail, & Latif, 2021; Tan & Ng, 2022). As of 2021, an estimated 87%
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of Malaysian master’s-level counseling programs offered no neuroscience-related training, citing institutional
constraints and a lack of curricular flexibility. By contrast, international institutions such as the University of
California, Los Angeles (UCLA), have integrated practicum-based electroencephalography (EEG)
biofeedback training into counselor education, demonstrating more progressive and flexible models of
implementation (Hammond, 2018).
A second barrier is the shortage of trained instructors. Malaysia currently has fewer than 20 practitioners
certified by the Biofeedback Certification International Alliance (BCIA), the majority of whom are
psychiatrists or clinical psychologists trained privately or abroad (BCIA, 2023). A national survey by the
Malaysian Society for Clinical Psychology (MSCP, 2023) revealed that only 15% of local psychologists had
formal neurofeedback training, and only 12% of university psychology departments reported having qualified
faculty to teach the subject (Malaysian Psychological Association, 2023). Without trained educators in
counseling programs, access to neurofeedback training for students remains highly restricted.
The third constraint is financial. A clinical-grade neurofeedback system typically costs between RM 15,000
and RM 30,000, excluding software, practitioner training, and maintenance costs (Aini Ismafairus, Zulkifli, &
Karim, 2020). Given the limited budgets of Malaysian public universities, investments in such equipment are
often deprioritized. According to the Malaysian Society of Neurosciences (2022), fewer than 5% of public
institutions currently possess dedicated neurofeedback facilities. These financial limitations mirror trends in
other developing countries, where high technology costs hinder the adoption of neuroscience-based
interventions (Thibault & Raz, 2017).
A fourth challenge is professional skepticism. Despite growing international recognition of NFB as an
adjunctive intervention, skepticism persists among Malaysian counselor educators and practitioners. Concerns
arise from mixed evidence regarding its effectiveness in certain conditions such as depression and PTSD,
despite robust findings in ADHD and anxiety (Thibault & Raz, 2017; Hammond, 2011). Furthermore, NFB is
often perceived as highly technical, requiring advanced neurophysiological knowledge and equipment that
some view as beyond the traditional scope of counseling (Russell-Chapin, 2016). Others worry that adopting
neuroscience-informed practices may conflict with the relational and person-centered ethos of counseling,
contributing to fears of medicalization (Bodie et al., 2023). These identity concerns, coupled with limited
expertise and resources, perpetuate reluctance to integrate NFB into Malaysian counselor education.
Taken together, these systemic, financial, and professional barriers significantly restrict opportunities for
Malaysian counseling students to meaningfully engage with neurofeedback training. This highlights a critical
gap in understanding how such training, when accessible, is experienced and internalized by students. To date,
qualitative studies on the educational value of neurofeedback remain limited, particularly in Malaysia. While
international research has documented both clinical and pedagogical benefits (Cook, Snow, & Barlow, 2020;
Spears, Hammond, & Field, 2024), little is known about how Malaysian counseling students engage with,
learn from, and conceptualize neurofeedback within their professional development. Addressing this gap, the
present study seeks to explore the lived experiences of counseling students who undergo neurofeedback
training, with particular attention to its influence on experiential learning, self-efficacy, and perceptions of
neurocounseling. By doing so, this research aims to provide contextually relevant insights that can inform
curriculum reform, guide faculty development, and support the integration of neuroscience-informed
approaches in Malaysian counselor education.
Aim of the Research
The aim of this study is to explore Malaysian counseling students’ experiences with neurofeedback training,
focusing on how they engage with the learning process, their confidence in applying neuroscience-based
interventions, and their perceptions of integrating neurocounseling into future practice.
Research Objectives
1. To explore how counseling students engage with and process their neurofeedback training experience.
2. To explore the impact of neurofeedback training on counseling students’ self-efficacy in applying
neuroscience-based interventions.
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3. To explore counselling students’ perceptions of neurocounseling and its role in their future practice
after engaging in neurofeedback training.
Significance of the Research
This qualitative study exploring Malaysian counseling students’ experiences with neurofeedback training
holds substantial importance for advancing counselor education, clinical practice, and culturally responsive
mental health care. As the first in-depth investigation of neurofeedback learning experiences in Malaysia, it
addresses a critical gap in understanding how counseling students engage with training, reflect on their
confidence in applying neuroscience-based interventions, and perceive the role of neurocounseling in future
practice, a field still underrepresented in Malaysian training programs (Abdul Rahman et al., 2021). By
centering on the lived experiences of postgraduate counselling students, the study provides pedagogical
insights into how experiential exposure to neuroscience-based tools supports their learning processes, informs
their confidence and readiness, and shapes their views on integrative clinical practice. This is particularly
significant within the Malaysian context, where counselors are increasingly expected to adopt evidence-
informed and holistic approaches to address complex mental health challenges.
For students, the study offers a reflective mirror into how hands-on training can bridge the theory-practice gap,
cultivate neurobiological awareness, and promote embodied empathy in therapeutic contexts. It supports the
development of students’ professional identity as future neurocounselors and empowers them to explore
beyond traditional talk therapies. Exposure to neurofeedback may also increase employability and readiness
for multidisciplinary collaboration, as students become equipped with emerging competencies aligned with
global mental health trends.
At the institutional level, the study informs curriculum reform by highlighting the feasibility and pedagogical
value of incorporating neuroscience-informed modules into existing counselor education frameworks. It
advocates for the Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA) to reconsider rigid curriculum standards and allow
for innovation in teaching methods, especially in alignment with the Malaysian Psychological Association’s
(MPA, 2023) call for “next-generation therapy training.” In a national landscape marked by a shortage of
certified neurofeedback practitioners (Ng et al., 2022), these findings may guide universities to strategically
invest in faculty training, infrastructure, and interdisciplinary partnerships to build neurofeedback capacity
from within.
Professionally, the research contributes to the evolving field of neurocounseling by legitimizing it as a viable
and culturally adaptable specialization in Malaysia. By surfacing students’ perceptions of its benefits and
challenges, the study offers a grounded foundation for integrating biofeedback and brain-based techniques into
mainstream practice. Furthermore, by exploring sociocultural barriers such as language accessibility, technical
skepticism, and educational unfamiliarity (Tan, 2023) the findings support the development of localized
training resources and awareness campaigns to normalize neuroscience in counseling.
From a policy perspective, the study provides timely evidence for stakeholders such as the Ministry of Health
(MOH), universities, and professional bodies to promote mental health workforce development grounded in
contemporary, culturally relevant modalities. Insights from the study can inform national frameworks on
counselor competencies and inform grant allocations, training schemes, and public-private partnerships aimed
at expanding neurocounseling services across settings.
Ultimately, this research bridges the gap between Malaysia’s growing interest in neuroscience-based therapies
and the practical implementation of such approaches in counselor education and service delivery. It affirms
that with strategic support, counseling students can become confident, ethical, and neuroscience-informed
practitioners capable of responding to Malaysia’s evolving mental health needs.
THEORETICAL APPROACH AND LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter provides a theoretical application and comprehensive review of the literature that supports and
contextualizes the present study. It begins with a discussion of the core psychological theories that underpin
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neurofeedback training namely Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory and Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory.
These models frame how counseling students learn from hands-on experience and develop confidence in
applying new therapeutic tools. Following this, the chapter explores the theoretical basis of neurofeedback
itself, including foundational principles, physiological mechanisms, and its clinical applications. The second
part of the chapter provides a literature review on the integration of neurofeedback in mental health practice
and counselor training, with an emphasis on identifying key research gaps and justifying the current study.
Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb, 1984)
Kolb's Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) (1984) serves as the foundational framework for understanding
how counseling students acquire neurofeedback competencies through direct experience and reflection. The
four-stage cyclical process - Concrete Experience, Reflective Observation, Abstract Conceptualization, and
Active Experimentation - provides a robust structure for clinical skill development (Kolb & Kolb, 2017). In
neurofeedback training, this manifests as students' hands-on experience with EEG equipment (Concrete
Experience), their analysis of brainwave-emotion correlations (Reflective Observation), and their integration
of neuroscientific principles with counseling theory and practice (Abstract Conceptualization). While
traditional applications of ELT emphasize Active Experimentation through clinical implementation, the
Malaysian context presents unique challenges that necessitate theoretical adaptation (Abdul Rahman et al.,
2021). Research demonstrates that modified ELT approaches remain effective when infrastructure limitations
prevent full implementation of the learning cycle (Morris, 2020), particularly in neuroscience-informed
counselor education (Lemberger-Truelove & Bowers, 2020).
Self-Efficacy Theory (Bandura, 1997)
Bandura's Self-Efficacy Theory (1997) complements and extends Kolb's framework by focusing on learners'
confidence in applying acquired skills. This theoretical perspective becomes particularly valuable when
assessing learning outcomes in situations where direct clinical application is not immediately possible. Self-
efficacy beliefs - individuals' judgments about their capabilities to execute specific behaviors - serve as crucial
predictors of future skill implementation (Bandura, 1997). In neurofeedback training, students' developing
confidence in using these techniques and their perceptions of neurocounseling's effectiveness provide
meaningful indicators of learning success (Larson et al., 2019). The theory's emphasis on cognitive mediation
aligns with contemporary understandings of how experiential learning translates into professional practice
(Schwarzer & Luszczynska, 2015), especially in emerging therapeutic domains like neurocounseling (Kaplan
et al., 2020). When combined with ELT, self-efficacy measures offer a pragmatic solution for assessing
learning outcomes in resource-constrained environments while maintaining theoretical rigor (Lent et al.,
2008).
The interrelationship between these theories creates a comprehensive framework for examining neurofeedback
training. While Kolb's model explains the learning process, Bandura's theory provides crucial insights into
learners' readiness to apply their knowledge. This integrated approach is particularly relevant in Malaysian
counselor education, where it addresses both the cognitive and motivational aspects of professional
development (Abdul Rahman et al., 2021). Together, these theoretical perspectives offer a nuanced
understanding of how counseling students develop both competence and confidence in emerging
neurocounseling approaches, even when immediate clinical application opportunities are limited
Neurofeedback
Neurofeedback, also known as electroencephalography (EEG) biofeedback, is a non-invasive, brain-based
intervention that trains individuals to regulate their own brainwave activity. It involves monitoring brain
signals in real-time and providing feedback typically through visual or auditory cues when optimal neural
patterns are detected. Over time, this process enables individuals to develop greater control over cognitive,
emotional, and physiological states (Hammond, 2011; Sherlin et al., 2011).
As a form of applied psychophysiology, neurofeedback is grounded in the understanding that brainwave
activity corresponds with various mental functions. For example, beta waves are associated with alertness and
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concentration, while alpha waves relate to calmness and relaxation. By using software and sensors to detect
these signals, neurofeedback systems reward the brain when it produces desired wave patterns, such as
increasing alpha during relaxation training or reducing theta in attention-enhancement protocols (Strehl, 2014).
Neurofeedback has been applied across a wide range of clinical and non-clinical settings. It has demonstrated
effectiveness in treating conditions such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anxiety disorders,
depression, epilepsy, insomnia, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Kober et al., 2021; Panisch & Hai,
2020). More recently, its use has extended to performance optimization in athletes, musicians, and high-
functioning professionals (Gruzelier, 2014). As the practice gains empirical support, interest in integrating
neurofeedback into counselor training has grown, particularly in the context of self-regulation, trauma
recovery, and holistic mental health care.
Despite these promising applications, neurofeedback remains underutilized in counselor education,
particularly in Malaysia. A deeper understanding of its theoretical foundations can help justify its integration
into counseling practice and pedagogy. The following section outlines the foundational theories that support
neurofeedback as a science-informed and learner-centered intervention.
Foundational Theories
Neurofeedback is grounded in robust psychological and neuroscientific principles that enhance its standing as
an effective mental health intervention. Its core mechanism can be understood through operant conditioning,
the behavioral learning model introduced by Skinner (1938), where real-time feedback reinforces desired
brainwave patterns. Recent reviews of EEG neurofeedback reaffirm that participants learn to self-regulate
neural activity through continuous reinforcement of targeted brainwave bands, such as increasing beta waves
for enhanced attention (Sherlin et al., 2011; Strehl, 2014).
This behavioral foundation is supported by neuroplasticity, the brain’s ability to reorganize itself in response
to training (Doidge, 2007). Empirical studies since 2020 have demonstrated that repeated neurofeedback
sessions produce lasting changes in brain connectivity and function. For example, connectivity-based EEG
neurofeedback has been shown to significantly strengthen emotion regulation pathways, including amygdala-
prefrontal cortex interactions (Dehghani et al., 2022).
Self-regulation theory further illuminates how neurofeedback fits within counseling models. By making neural
signals visible and controllable, neurofeedback strengthens clients’ capacity to monitor and manage emotional
and attentional states (Hammond, 2011). Contemporary research supports this by demonstrating that real-time
fMRI neurofeedback enables participants to self-modulate neural regions related to emotion regulation such
as the anterior cingulate cortex and insula through reinforced self-regulation practices (Al-Khazraji et al.,
2025).
Finally, biofeedback theory underpins neurofeedback's broader classification. As an advanced form of
biofeedback, it harnesses EEG-generated physiological data to facilitate behavioral learning and regulation.
This approach is validated by studies in functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) neurofeedback, which
report significant improvements in emotion regulation across various populations (Fang et al., 2025).
Together, these four theoretical pillars; operant conditioning, neuroplasticity, self-regulation, and biofeedback
which create a cohesive foundation for neurofeedback. They explain how structured, feedback-based training
empowers individuals to achieve voluntary control over brain activity, leading to improved attention,
emotional balance, and resilience. These evidence-based principles validate the integration of neurofeedback
into counseling education and justify ongoing research into its application within professional development.
Basic Concepts, Physiological Basis, and Clinical Applications
Neurofeedback operates by detecting electrical activity in the brain through electroencephalography (EEG)
and providing real-time feedback to help individuals self-regulate their brainwave patterns. The basic concept
relies on the principle that when individuals receive immediate visual or auditory reinforcement for producing
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desired neural activity, they can learn to increase or decrease specific brainwave frequencies voluntarily
(Thibault, Lifshitz, & Raz, 2018). This process supports enhanced cognitive, emotional, and behavioral
functioning over time.
The physiological foundation of neurofeedback lies in the analysis of distinct brainwave frequency bands,
each of which corresponds to specific mental states (Kamiya, 2011; Gruzelier, 2018). These bands summarized
in Table 1 below range from deep sleep-related delta waves to high-level cognitive gamma waves.:
Table 2.1 Brainwave Frequency Bands and Their Associated Mental States
No
Brainwave Band
Frequency Range (Hz)
Associated Mental States
1
Delta
0.5–4 Hz
Deep sleep and unconscious processes
2
Theta
4–8 Hz
Drowsiness, creativity, and daydreaming
3
Alpha
8–12 Hz
Relaxed alertness and meditative states
4
Beta
12–30 Hz
Active thinking, focus, and problem-solving
5
Gamma
30–100 Hz
High-level cognitive processing and
consciousness
By targeting specific waveforms, neurofeedback can promote or inhibit certain brain states to meet therapeutic
goals. For instance, sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) training (12–15 Hz) is commonly used to enhance attentional
control and reduce hyperactivity in individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
(Gevensleben et al., 2014; Arns, Heinrich, & Strehl, 2020). Similarly, alpha-theta training, which encourages
a shift from relaxed awareness to deeper meditative states, has proven effective in trauma recovery and
emotional processing, particularly among clients with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Gruzelier, 2018).
Another widely researched protocol is slow cortical potential (SCP) training, which targets slow shifts in
cortical excitability. SCP training has demonstrated efficacy in managing epilepsy, mood disorders, and
emotional dysregulation (Strehl et al., 2017). These protocols illustrate the clinical flexibility of neurofeedback
in addressing a wide range of neuropsychological conditions.
In the field of counselling, neurofeedback is increasingly recognized as a complementary, non-
pharmacological approach that promotes self-awareness, emotional regulation, and resilience. It empowers
clients to become active participants in their own mental health journey by offering an experiential method of
understanding and altering internal states (Swingle, 2015). This aligns with humanistic and client-centered
therapeutic values, making neurofeedback an appealing addition to integrative mental health practices.
Neurofeedback Training and Professional Implementation
Training in neurofeedback varies widely across disciplines, institutions, and regions. Internationally, the
Biofeedback Certification International Alliance (BCIA) sets the standard for professional neurofeedback
practice. Its certification process includes didactic education, supervised clinical hours, and formal
competency evaluations to ensure ethical and effective application (BCIA, 2022). This structured pathway is
widely recognized in countries such as the United States, Canada, and parts of Europe.
In contrast, neurofeedback training in Malaysia and other developing counseling contexts remains largely
informal and fragmented. Most local training opportunities are delivered through short-term workshops or
private providers, rather than embedded within accredited university curricula (Abdul Rahman, Ismail, &
Latif, 2021). Moreover, while psychologists and psychiatrists in Malaysia are increasingly incorporating
neurofeedback into clinical practice, counselors often face limited access to certified training, supervision, and
EEG equipment (van Boxtel et al., 2023). This professional gap has implications not only for ethical delivery
but also for the broader integration of neuroscience into holistic mental health care.
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The need to formally integrate neurofeedback into counselor education is underscored by the growing
relevance of neuroscience-informed practice. According to Demos (2019), practitioner competence in
neurofeedback hinges on more than theoretical understanding as it requires direct, hands-on engagement with
EEG technology and real-time brainwave interpretation. Experiential learning environments are critical for
building the clinical confidence and decision-making skills necessary for neurofeedback to be applied
responsibly and effectively.
However, as Hammond (2011) and others have noted, few counselor training programs either in Malaysia or
globally offer such immersive learning opportunities. The absence of structured neurofeedback training
contributes to ongoing skepticism, technical discomfort, and underutilization among counselors. Bridging this
gap would enhance the clinical applicability and cultural acceptance of neurofeedback, especially in regions
with rising demand for non-pharmacological and neuroscience-informed therapeutic approaches (Thibault &
Raz, 2017).
Incorporating neurofeedback into counselor education not only promotes professional competence but also
aligns with global movements toward integrative, evidence-based mental health services. As counseling
continues to evolve, ensuring access to structured neurofeedback training will be essential in preparing the
next generation of counselors for more holistic and technologically advanced client care.
LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review critically examines the role of neurofeedback in mental health practice and counselor
education, with particular focus on global trends, its educational integration, barriers to adoption in Malaysia,
and prevailing research gaps. This synthesis provides a comprehensive foundation for understanding the
significance and innovation of the present study within both local and international contexts.
Global Perspectives on Neurofeedback in Mental Health Practice
Neurofeedback has gained increasing recognition globally as an evidence-based intervention for various
mental health conditions, particularly those involving self-regulation deficits. Meta-analytic findings by Arns,
Heinrich, and Strehl (2020) report moderate to large effect sizes in the treatment of attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), with improvements often sustained at follow-up, highlighting the long-
term viability of neurofeedback protocols. Beyond ADHD, studies have also demonstrated efficacy in reducing
symptoms of anxiety, depression, and trauma-related disorders when standardized neurofeedback protocols
are applied (van Boxtel et al., 2023; Gruzelier, 2018).
In response to its growing empirical support, prestigious institutions such as the Semel Institute for
Neuroscience and Human Behavior at UCLA and Harvard Medical School have integrated neurofeedback into
clinical training and research environments (Ros et al., 2020; Sokhadze et al., 2021). These initiatives reflect
a broader trend toward neuroscience-informed mental health care, emphasizing the role of brain-based
technologies in complementing traditional therapeutic approaches.
However, despite these advances, the global implementation of neurofeedback faces several practical and
systemic challenges. One key issue is the lack of standardized treatment protocols. As Hammond (2018) notes,
there is considerable variation across clinical sites in terms of EEG parameter selection, session frequency,
and duration, leading to inconsistencies in outcomes and difficulties in replication. Furthermore, Thibault,
Lifshitz, and Raz (2018) emphasize the financial burden associated with neurofeedback, with treatment cycles
costing between USD $2,000 to $5,000, making access difficult even in well-resourced health systems. These
cost-related barriers disproportionately affect clients in lower-income communities and contribute to unequal
access to this emerging form of care.
In summary, while neurofeedback continues to show strong therapeutic potential, its global application is still
limited by economic, logistical, and methodological constraints. These limitations underscore the importance
of ongoing research, policy innovation, and clinician training to make neurofeedback more accessible,
affordable, and standardized across mental health care systems worldwide.
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Neurofeedback in Counselor Training and Education
The integration of neurofeedback into counselor education marks an emerging yet underdeveloped frontier in
professional mental health training. As the counseling field increasingly embraces neuroscience-informed
practices, neurofeedback presents a practical method for bridging theoretical knowledge with experiential
learning. Neurofeedback, often delivered through electroencephalography (EEG) biofeedback, enables
trainees to observe real-time brainwave activity and regulate their emotional and cognitive states. This aligns
closely with experiential learning models and strengthens counseling students’ clinical skills.
Cook, Snow, and Barlow (2020) identified three core competencies essential for effective neurofeedback
training within counselor education: (1) technical proficiency in operating EEG systems, (2) ethical decision-
making in applying neuroscience-based interventions, and (3) the ability to integrate neurobiological insights
into client case conceptualization. Their findings indicated that hands-on neurofeedback training significantly
enhanced students’ self-efficacy, outperforming traditional didactic instruction. These results underscore the
pedagogical value of experiential learning environments in building clinical confidence, an outcome aligned
with Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb, 1984).
A significant advancement in this area is seen in a three-round Delphi study conducted by Spears, Romero,
Robertson, and Prasath (2024), which developed 108 core competencies necessary for counseling students to
practice neurofeedback ethically and effectively. These competencies spanned technical skills, session
structuring, client communication, and integration with counseling techniques. Notably, the study emphasized
preparing students to “independently conduct neurofeedback sessions from start to finish” and to “integrate
counseling skills with neurofeedback sessions” (Spears et al., 2024) highlighting the depth of integration
required within counselor education.
In parallel, interdisciplinary programs in the United States have piloted innovative approaches to
neurofeedback training. For instance, one educational intervention combined Science, Technology,
Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics (S.T.E.A.M.) education with mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR),
virtual reality (VR), and neurofeedback to train school counselors in immersive, real-world learning
environments (Min et al., 2023). These integrated models promote technical competence, reflective practice,
and engagement with neurocounseling principles fostering both cognitive and emotional readiness among
trainees.
These examples signify a shift in perception from neurofeedback as a purely clinical or diagnostic tool to its
recognition as an experiential learning modality within counselor education. Institutions across the United
States, and to a lesser extent in Europe, have begun embedding neurofeedback modules into practicum-based
courses, aligning neuroscience with professional counseling competencies (Bodie, Moon, Ma, & Parker, 2023;
Ramey, George, & Russell-Chapin, 2022). Such efforts demonstrate that experiential neurofeedback training
not only supports skill acquisition but also promotes the development of professional identity and clinical
adaptability among counseling students.
Despite its potential, the adoption of neurofeedback in counselor education remains highly uneven across
regions. Mehler et al. (2023) found that over 60% of graduate-level clinical psychology programs in countries
such as Japan and South Korea offer structured coursework on neurotechnologies, including neurofeedback.
In contrast, fewer than 15% of institutions in Southeast Asia incorporate such training into counseling or
psychology curricula. This disparity stems from various factors, including limited access to EEG equipment,
a shortage of qualified instructors, and a lack of institutional investment in neuroscience-based teaching.
In Malaysia, the situation is particularly constrained. A national survey by Abdul Rahman, Ismail, and Latif
(2021) revealed that 92% of Malaysian counseling programs do not offer any neuroscience-related modules.
This omission is primarily due to regulatory frameworks established by the Malaysian Qualifications Agency
(MQA), which emphasize traditional therapeutic models such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and
Person-Centered Therapy (PCT). Consequently, Malaysian counseling students are rarely exposed to brain-
based approaches like neurofeedback, despite its growing relevance in global mental health practice.
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The absence of formal neurofeedback training in Malaysian counselor education presents multiple challenges.
First, it limits students’ development of self-efficacy in applying neuroscience-informed techniques. Second,
it restricts engagement with integrative, client-centered practices increasingly endorsed in global frameworks.
Third, it prevents the profession from advancing alongside innovations that are transforming the delivery of
psychological services worldwide.
To address these gaps, researchers have called for curriculum innovation, faculty capacity building, and
international collaboration to introduce structured neurofeedback training into counselor education,
particularly in underrepresented regions such as Southeast Asia (Demos, 2019; Hammond, 2011). Embedding
neurofeedback into formal training programs could enhance student engagement, foster reflective practice,
and position the counseling profession to meet future demands for integrative and evidence-based mental
health interventions.
Barriers in Malaysian Counselor Education
The implementation of neurofeedback in Malaysian counselor education faces three major structural
challenges: curriculum rigidity, shortage of qualified trainers, and financial constraints.
Curriculum rigidity remains the primary obstacle. Public universities in Malaysia are governed by strict
guidelines from the Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA), which emphasizes core competencies in
traditional therapeutic models such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Person-Centered Therapy (Ng,
Wong, & Khalid, 2022). These regulations leave minimal room for integrating emerging neuroscience-based
techniques like neurofeedback. The procedural requirements for introducing new modules requiring multiple
levels of approval often discourage curriculum innovations (Ng et al., 2022).
Next, there is a significant shortage of qualified neurofeedback trainers. As of 2023, there are fewer than 20
practitioners in Malaysia certified by the Biofeedback Certification International Alliance (BCIA), and most
practice in the private sector, such as at New Mind Brain Health Centre, rather than within public academic
institutions (BCIA, 2023; Malaysian Psychological Association, 2023). This scarcity of certified faculty
creates a barrier to adopting neurofeedback training within counselor education programs (Abdul Rahman,
Ismail, & Latif, 2021).
A third major barrier is financial cost. Clinical-grade neurofeedback systems, including EEG hardware,
software, and certified practitioner training, are estimated to cost between RM 15,000 and RM 30,000 (Aini
Ismafairus, Zulkifli, & Karim, 2020). Given the budget constraints of public universities, investment in such
specialized technology is often not prioritized, especially without external grants or institutional support (Tan,
2023).
Moreover, some educational stakeholders exhibit attitudinal resistance toward neurofeedback, perceiving it as
overly medical or incompatible with traditional counseling philosophies. This cultural resistance contributes
to hesitancy in adopting neuroscience-based components within counselor education (Tan, 2023; van Boxtel
et al., 2023).
These combined barriers—administrative, resource-based, and cultural highlight the urgent need for targeted
policy intervention, funding strategies, and cross-sector collaboration. Addressing these challenges is critical
to aligning Malaysian counselor training with international best practices in neuroscience-informed mental
health education (Mehler et al., 2023).
Identified Research Gaps
Although neurofeedback has garnered increasing attention in clinical psychology and psychiatry over the past
decade, significant gaps remain in its integration within counselor education particularly concerning how
students are trained, mentored, and prepared to implement this modality in practice. Much of the current
literature focuses predominantly on clinical outcomes for specific diagnoses such as ADHD, PTSD, and
anxiety (Coben, Myers, & Evans, 2021; Arns et al., 2020), yet gives limited attention to how neurofeedback
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is taught or how trainees experience the learning process. This leaves a critical void in the educational
discourse surrounding neurofeedback as a component of professional counseling training.
Moreover, although theoretical frameworks such as Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory and Bandura’s Self-
Efficacy Theory are widely acknowledged for their relevance to counselor education, few empirical studies
have systematically applied these models to investigate counseling students’ engagement with neurofeedback.
A review by Mehler et al. (2023) notes that despite growing interest in neurocounseling, research remains
scarce on how experiential neurofeedback training impacts self-confidence, clinical reasoning, and skill
generalization among trainees especially in culturally diverse or under-resourced settings.
In the Southeast Asian and Malaysian contexts, the research gap is even more pronounced. The Malaysian
Psychological Association (2023) emphasized the urgent need to develop local evidence to support “next-
generation therapy training,” citing the absence of neuroscience-informed content in most postgraduate
counseling programs. To date, no published qualitative studies in Malaysia have explored how counseling
students perceive, process, or integrate neurofeedback into their understanding of clinical practice. This lack
of local scholarship limits both curriculum development and the profession’s capacity to adapt to global
advancements in mental health technologies.
Several structural barriers contribute to this gap. These include rigid curriculum frameworks enforced by
regulatory bodies, which restrict the inclusion of innovative modalities (Ng, Wong, & Khalid, 2022); a
shortage of Biofeedback Certification International Alliance (BCIA) certified instructors who can provide
hands-on guidance (BCIA, 2023); and cost-related challenges such as the high expense of EEG systems (Aini
Ismafairus, Zulkifli, & Karim, 2020). Furthermore, cultural skepticism and hesitancy among academic faculty
have resulted in minimal support for introducing brain-based interventions in counseling classrooms (Tan,
2023).
In summary, the current body of literature emphasizes clinical efficacy over educational application,
overlooking how neurofeedback training shapes the development of future counselors. This study aims to fill
that gap by exploring the lived experiences of Malaysian postgraduate counseling students who participated
in neurofeedback training. By investigating their perceptions, learning processes, and self-efficacy, the
research contributes essential insights that can inform future curriculum enhancements and promote the
integration of neuroscience-informed practices in counselor education.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This study employed a qualitative phenomenological research design to explore participants’ subjective
experiences of neurofeedback training. Phenomenology, as a qualitative tradition, seeks to uncover the
meaning individuals assign to a specific phenomenon as experienced in their everyday lives. This approach
was chosen because it enables the researcher to delve deeply into the thoughts, emotions, and insights of
counseling students following their direct engagement with neurofeedback. The phenomenological framework
facilitated an understanding of how students interpreted their learning process, perceived their confidence in
applying neurofeedback-related techniques, and envisioned the role of neurocounseling in their future practice
(Creswell & Poth, 2018).
Participants and Sampling
Participants were selected using purposive sampling, which is commonly used in qualitative research to
deliberately recruit individuals who possess specific knowledge, experiences, or characteristics relevant to the
phenomenon under investigation (Creswell & Poth, 2018). In this study, purposive sampling was chosen to
ensure that all participants had direct, experiential engagement with neurofeedback training as part of a
structured workshop. This sampling method allowed the researcher to target individuals who could offer rich,
first-hand insights into the learning processes, self-efficacy development, and perceptions of neurocounseling
that emerged from this novel exposure.
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The sample consisted of five postgraduate students enrolled in the Master of Clinical Mental Health
Counselling program at University Pendidikan Sultan Idris (UPSI). All participants had no prior exposure to
neurofeedback techniques before attending this neurofeedback training workshop facilitated by a certified
practitioner at New Mind Brain Health Centre. The decision to include only five participants is consistent with
the principles of phenomenological research, which emphasizes depth over breadth. According to existing
literature, phenomenological studies typically involve between 3 to 10 participants, enabling researchers to
conduct detailed, reflective analysis of individual experiences (Smith et al., 2009; Guest et al., 2020). In this
study, thematic saturation was achieved with five participants, as recurring themes and subthemes emerged
consistently across the dataset.
Research Setting
The study was conducted in collaboration with New Mind Brain Health Centre, a neurofeedback training
facility operated under the direction of Dr. Koo Kian Yong, a certified neurofeedback practitioner and principal
instructor at New Mind Academy. The workshop was conducted at the centre’s premises, which are equipped
with clinical-grade EEG systems and neurofeedback interfaces. The training involved practical
demonstrations, hands-on use of neurofeedback devices, and real-time brainwave monitoring. All participants
were interviewed after completing the training workshop at this facility. The selection of this site was critical,
as it provided the structured experiential environment necessary to meet the study’s research objectives.
Data Collection Procedure
The data for this study were collected exclusively through semi-structured interviews, conducted within two
weeks after the participants completed the neurofeedback training. The use of semi-structured interviews is
well-suited to qualitative, phenomenological research designs, as it enables participants to express their lived
experiences in a flexible yet focused manner. This approach also ensures that key areas relevant to the research
objectives are thoroughly explored (Kallio et al., 2016).
Each interview was conducted through a secure online platform, depending on the participants’ availability,
and lasted approximately 40 to 60 minutes. Prior to each session, informed consent was obtained from the
participants, including permission for audio recording. All interviews were recorded and subsequently
transcribed verbatim to facilitate rigorous thematic analysis.
The interview protocol was developed to elicit in-depth insights into participants’ experiences and reflections
regarding neurofeedback training. Specifically, the questions aimed to explore their initial reactions to the
workshop, their understanding of the neurofeedback process, the influence of the training on their self-efficacy
as future counseling professionals, and their perceptions regarding the integration of neurocounseling into
future mental health practices.
Data Analysis
Thematic analysis was used to analyzed the transcribed interview data. This method was selected because it
provides a flexible yet rigorous framework for identifying and interpreting patterns of meaning across
qualitative datasets. The analysis followed Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-phase model: familiarization with
the data, generation of initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and
producing the final report. The researcher began by reading all transcripts multiple times to gain an overall
sense of the data. Initial codes were then developed from significant statements and grouped into broader
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themes that captured the essence of participants’ shared experiences. The themes were continuously refined
and cross-validated across transcripts to ensure accuracy and internal consistency.
Trustworthiness of the Research
To ensure methodological rigor in this qualitative exploration of counseling students’ experiences with
neurofeedback training, the study adhered to Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) four trustworthiness criteria:
credibility, dependability, confirmability, and transferability. These criteria are particularly critical in
phenomenological research where participants' subjective experiences form the core of data interpretation.
Credibility was established through member checking, allowing participants to review their individual
interview transcripts and clarify or confirm the interpreted meanings derived from their narratives (Birt et al.,
2016; Shenton, 2004). This step was essential given the technical nature of neurofeedback, ensuring that
students’ experiential accounts especially on concepts like brainwave regulation and mind-body integration
were accurately captured and did not reflect researcher misinterpretation.
Dependability was maintained through the consistent use of a semi-structured interview protocol across all
participants. This uniform approach allowed for comparability while still accommodating individualized
reflection on unique experiences. In addition, detailed documentation of the research process including coding,
theme development, and analytic decisions provided a clear audit trail, supporting claims of dependability
(Nowell et al., 2017).
Confirmability was reinforced by the researcher’s engagement in ongoing reflexivity. While participants were
not asked to maintain journals, the researcher documented her reflections and potential biases in a reflexive
journal throughout the data collection and analysis process. Given the researcher’s own interest and academic
background in neurocounseling, reflexivity was essential to minimize interpretive bias and ensure that
participant voices not researcher expectations guided the emergence of themes (Creswell & Poth, 2018).
Transferability was addressed through rich, thick description of the study setting, participant demographics,
and training context. Since this study focused on a specific population; Master’s in Clinical Mental Health
Counseling students at University Pendidikan Sultan Idris (UPSI) who had no prior exposure to neurofeedback
but participated in a structured training workshop; the contextual details provided will help readers assess
whether the findings may be applicable to similar educational or clinical training environments (Shenton,
2004).
Overall, these strategies enhanced the trustworthiness of the study, ensuring that the findings offer a credible,
dependable, and transferable contribution to the emerging field of neurocounseling education.
FINDINGS
Table 4.1 Research Findings for Research Question 1: Neurofeedback Training Experience Among
Counseling Students
Research Question 1
Themes
Subthemes
Neurofeedback Training Experience
Among Counseling Students
Initial Curiosity &
Excitement
Pre-training interest
Motivation to Explore
Novel Learning appeal
Hands-On Learning &
Demonstration
Experiential exposure
Observational learning
Practice-based engagement
Realization of Mind-Body
Emotion-brain link
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Connection
Self-regulation insight
Neurobiological awareness
Reflective Engagement
Reflective learning
Conceptual understanding
Supervisory processing
Table 4.2 Research Findings for Research Question 2: Self-Efficacy in Applying Neurofeedback
Research Question 2
Themes
Subthemes
Self-Efficacy in applying
Neurofeedback
Increased Confidence with Exposure
Practical assurance
Skills belief
Application confidence
Barriers: Technical & Accessibility
Equipment limitations
Technical barriers
Resource concern
Supportive Factors for Self-Efficacy
Peer support
Supervisor influence
Personal drive
Table 4.2 Research Findings for Research Questions 3: Perceptions of Neurocounseling in Future Practice
Research Question 3
Themes
Subthemes
Perceptions of Neurocounseling
in Future Practice
Value as Complementary Evidence-
Based Tool
Hope through evidence
Vaildating practice
Trust-building
Curriculum Integration &
Recommendation
Curriculum relevance
Practical module needs
Skill-based learning
Application to Diverse Clients
Suitability for trauma
Support for low-expressive client
Individualised care approach
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Neurofeedback Training through Experiential Learning Process
Research Objective 1 aimed to explore counseling students’ learning experiences during neurofeedback
training. The thematic findings Initial Curiosity and Excitement, Hands-On Learning and Demonstration,
Realization of Mind-Body Connection, and Reflective Engagement illustrate how neurofeedback functioned
as a meaningful experiential learning platform. These results align with Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory
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(1984), which emphasizes learning through concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract
conceptualization, and active experimentation.
Theme 1: Initial Curiosity and Excitement
Participants’ initial feelings of excitement and curiosity demonstrate the role of intrinsic motivation in adult
learning, especially when introduced to novel and neuroscience-based content. This motivational openness
aligns with Mehler et al. (2023), who reported that neuroscience-informed learning approaches tend to increase
engagement due to their innovative nature and perceived scientific relevance.
The findings are also consistent with Knowles’ (1980) andragogical principles, which emphasize that adult
learners are most responsive to educational content that is relevant, problem-centered, and applicable to real-
life contexts. The novelty of neurofeedback, coupled with its connection to scientific inquiry, likely appealed
to the participants' internal drive to learn and discover, as also observed in the early stages of other experiential
learning contexts.
In relation to Kolb’s (1984) Experiential Learning Theory, the participants’ curiosity reflects the initial stage
of the learning cycle, concrete experience where interest and emotional engagement prepare learners for deeper
processing and reflection. Their engagement was not only intellectual but also personal, as they perceived the
topic to be meaningful and applicable to their future roles as counselors.
This heightened interest can also be contextualized by considering the limited exposure many counseling
students in Malaysia have had to neuroscience-based tools such as neurofeedback. As noted by Gruzelier
(2018), the integration of neurofeedback in mental health training remains relatively underutilized, making it
an intellectually stimulating and novel experience for counseling students. The sense of discovery and
relevance reported by participants likely reflects a gap in traditional curricula, reinforcing the value of
incorporating neuroscience-informed tools in counselor education (Marzbani et al., 2016).
Theme 2: Hands-On Learning and Demonstration
The experiential component of the neurofeedback training, particularly live demonstration and peer modeling,
played a crucial role in enhancing participants’ understanding. This aligns with Kolb’s Experiential Learning
Theory (1984), which emphasizes that learning is most effective when individuals actively engage in concrete
experiences. Participants benefited from observing peers in real-time neurofeedback scenarios, which also
reflects Bandura’s (1997) Social Learning Theory, highlighting that individuals learn not only through doing
but also by watching others perform tasks and witnessing outcomes.
Peer involvement made the learning process more memorable and personally meaningful, especially when
learners observed brainwave-based interactions, such as controlling games or visualizing EEG feedback. This
experiential exposure supported both conceptual clarity and emotional engagement, two key aspects known to
enhance retention and application. These findings are supported by Cook et al. (2020), who found that
incorporating hands-on neurofeedback activities significantly increases student confidence and understanding.
Similarly, Larsen et al. (2019) reported that observational and participatory learning in biofeedback settings
enhances learner self-efficacy and engagement.
Given that most counseling curricula still offer limited exposure to neuroscience-based modalities, such
interactive strategies help bridge the gap between abstract concepts and practical application. This approach
not only builds competence but also increases learners’ motivation to integrate such tools into future
counseling practice (Gruzelier, 2018; Marzbani, Rezaei, & Rahmani, 2016).
Theme 3: Realization of the Mind-Body Connection
A key insight emerged as participants began recognizing the connection between emotional regulation and
observable brainwave patterns. This awareness illustrates a shift from abstract understanding to embodied
experience, aligning with the concept of transformational learning. Participants observed real-time feedback
loops where calming the mind influenced the continuity of video or game elements demonstrating how internal
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emotional states directly impact neurophysiological activity. Such experiential engagement aligns with Kolb’s
(1984) notion of reflective observation and active experimentation in learning, allowing participants to
internalize the mind-body connection in a tangible way.
This theme also highlights the development of self-regulation skills. Participants did not merely understand
emotional control as a cognitive task but began perceiving it as an active process of brain training. These
reflections mirror the findings of Fisher et al. (2022) and Gruzelier (2018), who emphasized neurofeedback’s
capacity to deepen self-awareness and enhance therapeutic insight by making the invisible (brain activity)
visible and modifiable. Through this process, learners gained a more intuitive understanding of how regulating
one’s mental state affects brainwave patterns, supporting the integration of somatic and cognitive awareness.
Furthermore, the training fostered neurobiological literacy a deeper understanding of how brain functions
relate to mental and emotional processes. One participant's realization that individuals can take control of their
own brain regulation reflects the empowering nature of such learning. This resonates with Schultz et al. (2021),
who advocate for incorporating neuroscience education into counseling training programs to equip future
professionals with the tools to understand clients from both psychological and physiological perspectives.
Overall, the internalization of brain-based learning through experiential feedback not only supported cognitive
development but also nurtured a sense of agency and insight, which are critical in forming competent, self-
aware practitioners.
Theme 4: Reflective Engagement
Beyond the development of technical skills, the neurofeedback training prompted participants to engage in
reflective thinking about the future integration of neuroscience into their counseling practice. Participants
reported taking time to consider how understanding brain activity could enhance their therapeutic approach.
This depth of reflection aligns with Kolb’s (1984) Experiential Learning Theory, specifically the stage of
abstract conceptualization, where learners interpret experiences to generate new insights and personal
meaning. The reflective process also resonates with Mezirow’s (1991) Transformative Learning Theory, which
highlights how adult learners shift perspectives through critical reflection.
Participants' evolving views on professional identity and openness to integrating neurofeedback reflect a
broader trend in counselor development toward embracing interdisciplinary practices. This is consistent with
findings by Tollerud and Vernon (2019), who emphasized that reflective practice helps counselors evaluate the
relevance of emerging technologies and integrate them ethically. Similarly, Spears et al. (2024) argued that
reflection enhances ethical responsiveness and adaptability, key traits in a rapidly changing mental health
landscape.
The data also revealed that reflection was not limited to personal insight but extended into supervisory
contexts. One participant expressed motivation to engage more deeply with their supervisor after the training.
This supports existing literature emphasizing supervision as a critical space for meaning-making and ethical
growth (Borders et al., 2014). By initiating dialogue with their supervisors, participants demonstrated growing
clinical maturity and a desire to contextualize their learning within professional practice.
Contextually, these reflections may be attributed to the novelty of neurofeedback in the Malaysian counseling
curriculum. For many participants, this training marked their first exposure to neuroscience-informed
approaches, offering a compelling opportunity to rethink traditional therapeutic roles. As highlighted by
Schultz et al. (2021), incorporating brain-based perspectives into counselor education encourages a more
holistic, integrative framework for mental health care. This shift in mindset underscores the potential of
neurofeedback not only as a technique, but as a catalyst for professional identity development and long-term
reflective engagement.
Neurofeedback’s Impact on Counseling Students’ Self-Efficacy
This section discusses findings from Research Objective 2, which explored how neurofeedback training
influenced participants’ self-efficacy as future counselors. The three themes that emerged—Increased
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Confidence with Exposure, Barriers: Technical and Accessibility, and Supportive Factors for Self-Efficacy—
are discussed in relation to Bandura’s (1997) Self-Efficacy Theory, which posits four primary sources: mastery
experiences, vicarious learning, verbal persuasion, and emotional regulation.
Theme 1: Increased Confidence Through Mastery Experience
The theme Increased Confidence with Exposure highlights how direct engagement with neurofeedback tools
facilitated a growing sense of mastery among participants. This finding aligns with Bandura’s (1997) Self-
Efficacy Theory, which identifies mastery experiences such as successful hands-on tasks as the most potent
source of self-efficacy development. As participants interacted with EEG equipment, received real-time
feedback, and interpreted their own brainwave data, they reported increased confidence in both using the
technology and applying it within clinical contexts.
This confidence was not limited to technical proficiency but extended into perceived readiness for real-world
application. Participants began viewing themselves as capable of incorporating neuroscience-informed
strategies into future counseling sessions. This supports findings by Cook et al. (2020), who reported that
hands-on neurofeedback training significantly improves students' preparedness to implement new, science-
based modalities in therapeutic practice. Similarly, Larsen et al. (2019) found that experiential learning in
neurofeedback settings cultivates both competence and self-trust among trainees, reinforcing the importance
of practice-based exposure in clinical education.
The participants’ reported confidence also reflects the experiential learning cycle proposed by Kolb (1984),
particularly the transition from active experimentation to abstract conceptualization. By engaging directly with
neurofeedback systems, students were not only learning through doing, but also integrating those experiences
into a broader understanding of their professional capabilities.
Contextually, this development is significant given the minimal exposure most Malaysian counseling students
have to neuroscience-based interventions. Even with limited training duration, the structured format of the
workshop incorporating demonstration, self-assessment, and reflection offered participants meaningful
learning encounters. This suggests that even brief, focused training modules can foster self-efficacy and open
pathways for innovation in mental health practice, especially when learners are given opportunities to interact
with novel tools in a supportive environment.
Theme 2: Perceived Barriers: Technical, Resource, and Institutional
Despite reported gains in confidence, participants also identified several barriers that limited their ability to
fully internalize and apply neurofeedback techniques. These challenges were not rooted in a lack of motivation
or capability, but rather in external and systemic factors such as environmental constraints, technical
complexity, and limited access to resources. For example, financial limitations and insufficient equipment
availability were seen as major obstacles, aligning with the findings of Ng et al. (2022), who reported that
infrastructural deficits and budgetary constraints are common challenges in implementing technology-based
training in counselor education across Southeast Asia.
In addition, several participants reported persistent uncertainty about the technical aspects of neurofeedback,
indicating that brief exposure was insufficient to build full competence. This observation reflects Bandura’s
(1997) assertion that self-efficacy may weaken when individuals encounter repeated difficulty without
adequate support or mastery experiences. It also suggests that while initial engagement can increase
confidence, sustained training and scaffolded learning are necessary to solidify practical competence.
Technical complexity emerged as a notable concern, particularly among participants with less prior exposure
to psychological technology. This supports Mehler et al. (2023), who emphasized the importance of tiered,
user-friendly neurofeedback training that progressively builds learners’ understanding and confidence. The
unfamiliarity and steep learning curve associated with EEG-based software tools indicate a need for more
structured onboarding processes and longer-term support mechanisms to ensure meaningful skill acquisition.
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From an experiential learning standpoint, the challenges reported may relate to limitations in the active
experimentation and abstract conceptualization stages of Kolb’s (1984) model. Without repeated practice,
feedback, and opportunities to reflect, participants may struggle to move beyond initial exposure toward
integrated, usable knowledge. Therefore, while neurofeedback training offers strong potential for counselor
development, its effectiveness is contingent upon the presence of sufficient infrastructure, clear instructional
design, and sustained learner support.
Theme 3: Social and Internal Supports in Self-Efficacy Development
While participants encountered barriers during their neurofeedback training, they also identified key
facilitating factors that supported the development of their self-efficacy. Aligned with Bandura’s (1997) Self-
Efficacy Theory, two significant social influences such as social modeling and verbal persuasion emerged
prominently. Peer support during demonstrations and collaborative discussions helped create a psychologically
safe environment where learners could observe success in others and receive encouragement. This finding is
consistent with Spears et al. (2024), who emphasized the importance of peer interaction and social engagement
in cultivating self-belief among trainee mental health professionals.
Supervisor involvement also played a critical role in reinforcing confidence through validation and
clarification. Access to expert guidance and structured learning environments contributed to participants’ belief
that they could eventually master the techniques. This form of verbal persuasion, especially when offered by
experienced professionals, is noted by Bandura (1997) as a key source of efficacy enhancement. Structured
supervision provided the necessary scaffolding for learners to test, refine, and validate their developing skills
in a supportive context.
In addition to social factors, intrinsic motivation was also a strong facilitator. Several participants credited
their growing confidence to a genuine interest in the subject matter, suggesting that internal curiosity served
as a protective factor against external barriers. This observation supports Tollerud and Vernon (2019), who
argue that intrinsically motivated learners are more resilient and more likely to integrate new practices into
their professional identity.
Collectively, the training fostered self-efficacy through a multi-layered approach involving mastery
experiences, peer collaboration, supervisory feedback, and personal drive. These findings align with broader
literature advocating for experiential, scaffolded, and context-sensitive training models in counselor education
(Cook et al., 2020; Mehler et al., 2023). At the same time, participants maintained a realistic awareness of
technical limitations and structural constraints, reflecting a maturing professional perspective. This tempered
confidence is essential for the ethical and responsible integration of neuroscience into counseling practice.
Counseling Students’ Perceptions of Neurofeedback in Future Practice
The third research objective focused on how participants perceived the role of neurofeedback in shaping their
future professional identity, attitudes, and integrative practice. Three themes emerged like Value as a
Complementary Evidence-Based Tool, Curriculum Integration and Recommendation, and Application to
Diverse Clients. These findings point to a growing openness among trainees to incorporate neuroscience-
informed techniques into holistic, client-centered care.
Theme 1: Neurofeedback as a Complementary and Evidence-Based Tool
Participants consistently perceived neurofeedback as a valuable complement to traditional talk therapy,
particularly due to its empirical foundation and capacity to provide visible, real-time feedback. This perception
reflects a growing appreciation for data-driven modalities that enhance therapeutic engagement by making
abstract emotional processes tangible. The integration of neurofeedback into counseling sessions was seen as
a way to instill hope in clients who may feel discouraged, and to increase motivation through the visual display
of progress. These findings support Fisher et al. (2022), who argue that neuroscience-based interventions can
improve transparency and engagement, especially among clients who are resistant to or fatigued by purely
verbal approaches.
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The ability of neurofeedback to provide real-time evidence of brain activity resonated strongly with
participants, who viewed this as both clinically informative and professionally reassuring. Participants noted
that it could enhance their understanding of client functioning and serve as a complementary intervention
grounded in scientific evidence. This aligns with Schultz et al. (2021), who emphasized the importance of
integrating neurobiological literacy into counselor education to support more holistic and evidence-informed
practice. Moreover, the participants’ reflections suggest that neurofeedback not only benefits client outcomes
but also boosts practitioner confidence by offering a credible, measurable foundation for their interventions.
Additionally, neurofeedback was recognized as a tool that promotes client empowerment. Participants
observed that clients could gain a sense of control over their emotional states by understanding and regulating
their brainwave patterns. This perspective is consistent with therapeutic models that emphasize autonomy and
active client participation, and it reflects the broader shift in mental health practice toward collaborative and
strengths-based interventions (Gruzelier, 2018). The use of real-time feedback encourages clients to become
active agents in their healing, potentially fostering a stronger therapeutic alliance and sustained behavior
change.
Overall, these findings underscore the perceived value of neurofeedback as a neuroscience-informed adjunct
to traditional counseling. They suggest that such integration not only aligns with emerging trends in mental
health care but also meets the dual goal of improving client outcomes and enhancing counselor efficacy.
Theme 2: Curriculum Integration and Professional Preparedness
A prominent suggestion among from participants was the formal integration of neurofeedback into the
counselor education curriculum. Participants viewed neurofeedback as a timely and relevant competency
aligned with the evolving demands of the mental health profession. They advocated for systemic curriculum
reform to incorporate neuroscience-informed practices as core components of training. This suggestion aligns
with Schultz et al. (2021), who emphasized the need to include neurobiological frameworks in counselor
education to prepare practitioners for modern, evidence-based practice. Proposals such as establishing formal
attachments with neurofeedback centers to fulfill academic credit hours reflect a forward-thinking approach
to bridging classroom learning with clinical application.
Participants also expressed a strong preference for practical, hands-on modules over purely theoretical
instruction. They emphasized the value of experiential training in deepening applied understanding and
preparing students for real-life counseling scenarios. This supports Kolb’s (1984) Experiential Learning
Theory, which posits that knowledge is best constructed through active engagement and reflective practice.
The emphasis on practical exposure is also echoed by Mehler et al. (2023), who found that experiential
methods in neuroscience education significantly enhance learner confidence, skill acquisition, and
professional readiness.
Additionally, participants highlighted the need for institutional investment in neurofeedback infrastructure.
Suggestions included the establishment of dedicated neurofeedback laboratories within universities, equipped
with appropriate tools, software, and technical support. Such recommendations underscore the importance of
long-term planning and resource allocation to ensure the sustainability and effectiveness of neurofeedback
integration in counselor training. This call for infrastructure mirrors challenges reported by Ng et al. (2022),
who noted that limited access to technology remains a significant barrier to implementing neuroscience-based
training in Southeast Asia.
In summary, participants envisioned a more progressive and applied training environment where
neurofeedback is not only taught conceptually but experienced in practice. Their insights reflect a broader shift
toward integrative, competency-based counselor education, rooted in both technological innovation and
experiential learning principles
Theme 3: Applicability to Diverse and Underserved Client Populations
Participants identified neurofeedback as a particularly adaptable intervention for diverse and underserved
client populations, especially those with trauma histories, limited verbal expression, or neurological
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conditions. In hospital and clinical settings, clients often struggle to articulate their emotional experiences, an
issue participants felt neurofeedback could address effectively. This aligns with existing research by Fisher et
al. (2022), which highlights neurofeedback’s capacity to bypass verbal processing and engage clients through
direct neurophysiological feedback.
For clients such as children, adolescents, or individuals with developmental or cognitive impairments,
neurofeedback was perceived as a supportive tool that offers nonverbal channels of therapeutic engagement.
Participants described its effectiveness in reaching clients who are otherwise disengaged or unable to
communicate their experiences, echoing findings by Hammond (2011), who advocates for neurofeedback in
pediatric and trauma-sensitive contexts. The tool's visual and interactive nature enhances accessibility, making
it a viable complement to traditional counseling approaches.
Moreover, participants recognized the precision and personalization that neurofeedback can offer. By tailoring
interventions based on real-time brain data, counselors can move toward more individualized treatment plans,
an approach supported by Gruzelier (2018), who emphasized neurofeedback’s cross-diagnostic utility and its
relevance in addressing a broad spectrum of mental health conditions, including anxiety, ADHD, and PTSD.
This reflects a shift toward data-informed practice, aligning with contemporary trends in integrative care and
personalized treatment planning.
The theme also underscores a growing recognition of ethical inclusivity in mental health services. Participants
viewed neurofeedback as a way to reach clients underserved by conventional talk therapy, particularly those
from marginalized or high-risk groups. This vision reflects the evolving identity of counselors as adaptable,
interdisciplinary practitioners. It is consistent with Spears et al. (2024) and Tollerud and Vernon (2019), who
advocate for the incorporation of innovative, science-informed approaches into counselor training to better
meet the diverse needs of clients.
Ultimately, participants saw neurofeedback not only as an advanced technique but also as a symbol of progress
in counselling broadening access, enhancing effectiveness, and reinforcing the counselor’s role in delivering
equitable and modern mental health care.
Integration Across Findings
The findings across all three research objectives suggest a synergistic impact of neurofeedback training on
counseling students' development. Experiential learning facilitated deeper cognitive processing and personal
engagement with the material (Objective 1), which in turn enhanced students’ self-efficacy and perceived
competence (Objective 2). This progression ultimately contributed to the development of new knowledge,
practical skills, and heightened professional self-awareness, shaping students’ attitudes and identities as future
practitioners (Objective 3). Within this context, neurofeedback functioned not merely as a technical
intervention but as a pedagogical tool that engaged the affective, cognitive, and behavioral dimensions of
learning. This multidimensional transformation reflects contemporary educational paradigms that prioritize
the cultivation of reflective, competent, and ethically grounded professionals (Tollerud & Vernon, 2019; Spears
et al., 2024).
CONCLUSION
This study explored the experiential learning, self-efficacy development, and evolving professional
perceptions of Clinical Mental Health Counseling students following neurofeedback training. The findings
demonstrate that neurofeedback, when delivered through hands-on and reflective engagement, can
significantly enhance students' understanding of brain-based processes, boost their confidence in applying
neuroscience-informed tools, and shape their evolving counselor identities. Grounded in Kolb’s Experiential
Learning Theory and Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory, the results confirm that practical exposure to
neurofeedback fosters meaningful internalization, professional motivation, and reflective capacity. Ultimately,
the training contributed to students viewing neurocounseling as a valuable and ethical addition to the future of
integrative mental health practice.
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Limitations of the Research
While this study provides valuable insights into counseling students’ experiences with neurofeedback training,
several limitations must be acknowledged. First, the sample was limited to five participants from a single
public university, which may affect the transferability of the findings to other educational or cultural contexts.
Second, all participants enrolled voluntarily, suggesting a potential selection bias, as they may have already
held a favorable disposition toward neuroscience or innovative training methods.
Third, the study did not include long-term follow-up, which limits understanding of how participants’
perceptions, confidence, or application of neurofeedback might evolve over time or within actual clinical
practice. Fourth, data collection relied exclusively on semi-structured interviews, without triangulation from
other sources such as reflective journals, classroom observations, or supervisor evaluations. This may
constrain the depth and credibility of interpretive findings.
Additionally, the findings are inherently context-bound, as they reflect the specific neurofeedback protocol,
tools, and facilitation style employed by Dr. Koo Kian Yong and his team during the workshop. Lastly, the
training was conducted as a single-session experience, which, while sufficient to initiate learning, may not
fully capture the complexity or progression of neurofeedback competency development over time.
Implications of the Research
The findings have important implications for counselor education, training, and practice. For academic
institutions, the results suggest that integrating experiential neuroscience components into the counseling
curriculum can enhance engagement, skill acquisition, and readiness for innovative practice. Curriculum
developers and decision-makers should consider allocating space for introductory neurofeedback modules,
particularly those emphasizing hands-on application and critical reflection. For clinical supervisors, the study
underscores the importance of fostering guided discussions around neuroscience tools to support ethical
integration. Furthermore, the research supports the broader professional movement toward neurocounseling,
reinforcing the idea that technological literacy and neurobiological insight should be foundational elements in
the training of future counselors.
Recommendations for Future Research
Future studies should expand on this work by including larger, more diverse samples across multiple
institutions to enhance generalizability. Longitudinal research designs would also be valuable in tracking the
lasting impact of neurofeedback training on professional identity, clinical competence, and client outcomes.
Additionally, researchers are encouraged to explore the integration of reflective journals, peer supervision
sessions, and practical assessments to triangulate qualitative findings. Comparative studies between students
exposed to neurofeedback and those trained through traditional methods could yield insights into differences
in clinical confidence, skill retention, and openness to neuroscience-based tools. Finally, exploring the
perspectives of faculty members and curriculum developers may offer a systemic understanding of barriers
and enablers to incorporating neurocounseling into higher education.
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