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Building Crisis-Ready Graduates: Mediating Effects of Response
Strategy on University Students’ Preparedness and Communication
Competency
Noor Khairin Nawwarah Khalid & Aida A.Rahman
Language Academy, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor
Bahru, 81310, Johor, Malaysia
DOI:
https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000145
Received: 06 October 2025; Accepted: 14 October 2025; Published: 06 November 2025
ABSTRACT
This study investigates the mediating role of crisis response strategy in the relationship between students’
preparedness and crisis communication competency among undergraduates in a Malaysian higher education.
Grounded in Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT), the research adapts three core constructs namely
crisis type identification, responsibility attribution, and strategic response selection to an educational context. A
total of 419 undergraduate students from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia has participated in a cross-sectional
survey. Using Hayes’ PROCESS macro (Model 4), mediation analyses revealed that crisis response strategy
significantly mediated all three hypothesised pathways: understanding of crisis types (H1), perceived
preparedness (H2), and responsibility attribution (H3). Partial mediation was observed in H1 and H3, while H2
demonstrated full mediation. These findings highlight the central role of strategic application in transforming
students’ cognitive, ethical, and experiential readiness into effective crisis communication performance. The
study extends SCCT beyond organizational actors to pre-professional learners and emphasizes the influence of
collectivist cultural norms on responsibility framing and strategy selection. Practical implications for curriculum
reform include integrating simulation-based learning and culturally responsive pedagogy into communication
education. The findings contribute to theory by repositioning SCCT as both a diagnostic and developmental
framework within higher education.
Keywords: Crisis communication, student preparedness, SCCT, higher education, Malaysia, communication
competency, mediation analysis
INTRODUCTION
In today’s volatile corporate environment, organizations face increasingly complex challenges such as financial
instability, reputational threats, and internal crises. These situations require effective crisis communication,
where employees must respond with empathy, clarity and strategic foresight. Although many fresh graduates
enter the workforce equipped with theoretical knowledge, they often struggle to apply it when they are in real-
world, high-pressure situations. Previous research consistently shows that this competency gap hampers
organizational crisis management efforts (Newman et al., 2022; Williams & Schaefer, 2021). Despite the
inclusion of crisis communication in course syllabi, previous research (Sharadgah & Sa’di, 2020) found
assessment practices in higher education frequently fail to evaluate students’ actual preparedness. In-class
assessments such as basic group presentations and written tests usually neglect essential skills such as decision-
making under stress, audience-specific messaging, and emotional regulation. The separations between intended
learning outcomes and assessment methods have raised concern among educators, employers, and policymakers
alike. This problem is particularly salient in Malaysia. The Twelfth Malaysia Plan (12MP) highlights human
capital development and workforce resilience as national priorities. However, many graduates still have
inadequate training in applied communication, strategic thinking and stakeholder engagement during workplacr
crises (Liu-Lastres et al., 2023; Seow et al., 2019). A continuous reliance on rote learning further restricts the
cultivation of 21st-century competencies such as adaptability, emotional intelligence and ethical judgment (Kaur
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et al., 2024). Morley and Jamil (2021) also emphasise that the absence of authentic, performance-based
assessments can impair graduates’ readiness to cope with high-stakes communication scenarios
This study addresses the gap by exploring how student preparedness translates into crisis communication
competency, particularly through the mediating role of crisis response strategy. Drawing on the Situational Crisis
Communication Theory (SCCT), the research reconceptualizes competency not merely as a product of
knowledge acquisition, but as the result of behavioral and ethical decision-making in simulated professional
settings. The framework positions strategic response selection as the key mechanism by which cognitive
understanding and training exposure are converted into communicative action.
The study is guided by the following research objectives:
1. To assess the mediating effect of crisis response strategy on the relationship between students’
understanding of crisis types and their crisis communication competency;
2. To assess the mediating effect of crisis response strategy on the relationship between students’ perceived
preparedness (training and workplace readiness) and their crisis communication competency; and
3. To assess the mediating effect of crisis response strategy on the relationship between students’
responsibility attribution and their crisis communication competency.
These objectives form a multidimensional framework to evaluate cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions
of learning. The findings offer empirical insights for aligning curriculum design, assessment methods, and
industry expectations within Malaysian higher education, particularly in the communication, business, and
management disciplines.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. The next section presents a critical review of relevant
literature and the theoretical framework. This is followed by the methodology, detailing research design,
instrument development, and data analysis procedures. The findings are then reported and discussed in light of
the research questions and SCCT. Finally, the paper concludes with theoretical and practical implications,
limitations, and directions for future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Crisis Communication Competency in Higher Education
The term “crisis” has long been recognized as a disruptive condition that threatens the stability and functionality
of organizations. Sawalha et al. (2013) defines a crisis as a deviant condition that presents significant hazards,
often accompanied by media scrutiny and requiring rapid decision-making that may lead to abrupt shifts in policy
or operations.
Early conceptualizations by Hermann (1963) identified three defining features of crisis: the threat to core
organizational values, the element of surprise, and the necessity for urgent response. More recent perspectives,
such as those of Coombs (2010a), emphasize the perceptual nature of crises by viewing them as situations that
stakeholders believe pose serious reputational or operational risks, regardless of objective severity. Hutchins and
Wang (2008) propose a useful typology distinguishing between natural crises and human-induced crises.
According to them, the former crises are natural disasters meanwhile the latter are ethical violations or corporate
misconduct. The evolving definitions show the complexity and context-dependence of crisis phenomena,
demanding deep understanding and well-considered response strategies, especially from those who are just
entering the workforce.
Crisis communication, as a field, has evolved alongside with crisis theory, progressing from linear stage-based
models to a more dynamic approaches that account for perception, stakeholder engagement and reputational
management. Fink’s (1986) crisis life cycle model, which consists of pre-crisis, crisis, and post-crisis stages,
provided the groundwork for systematic and structured communication planning. Coombs (2007, 2012, 2015,
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2022), through the development of Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT), emphasized that effective
communication must be tailored to the crisis type, the degree of responsibility attributed, and the organization’s
prior reputation. As such, crisis communication is no longer viewed as a reactive strategy but as an embedded
organizational competency that can mitigate damage and restore stakeholder trust.
Within the higher education setting, crisis communication competency has become increasingly important as
universities aim to produce graduates who are not only employable but also capable of adapting and remaining
resilient in unpredictable professional environments. Current employers expect fresh graduates and new
workforce entrants to demonstrate more than just theoretical knowledge. They must exhibit the ability to act
decisively under pressure, convey clear and persuasive messages, and manage diverse stakeholder expectations
(Fadhil et al., 2021). These demands are particularly acute during organizational crises, where the margin for
error is minimal and the consequences of miscommunication can be severe. Crisis communication competency
thus encompasses a suite of critical skills, including clarity in messaging, emotional intelligence, empathy,
stakeholder analysis, and strategic response formulation.
The need to develop crisis-ready graduates has become an urgent educational priority. As graduates transition
into complex organizational systems, they are likely to encounter high-stakes scenarios where they must
represent their teams, departments, or organizations during moments of uncertainty. Internal crisis
communication, in particular, has emerged as a crucial domain where young professionals must understand
established communication protocols and execute responses that align with organizational goals (Frandsen &
Johansen, 2016). Guzzo et al. (2021) assert that the ability to engage constructively with stakeholders during
crises significantly enhances an individual’s value to an organization and contributes to long-term organizational
resilience.
Despite its importance, crisis communication remains underdeveloped in most undergraduate curricula
(Schwarz, 2024). While elements of strategic communication may be introduced, these are rarely contextualized
within the high-pressure dynamics of crisis response. This gap has direct implications for graduate employability,
as students who are not trained to apply communication strategies in crisis situations may falter when faced with
urgent, emotionally charged, or reputationally sensitive challenges. Thus, embedding crisis communication as a
core competency, supported with performance-based assessments and experiential learning, is essential in
aligning higher education outcomes with the demands of today’s organizational environments.
Crisis Communication Gaps among University Graduates
While crisis communication is increasingly acknowledged as one of the critical workplace competencies, recent
studies have highlighted a persistent gap between the theoretical instruction provided in university settings and
the practical realities of crisis situations in organizational environments. Newman et al. (2022) found that many
graduates enter the workforce with a strong conceptual foundation yet most of them lack the ability to perform
effectively in high-pressure environments that demand real-time communication, emotional regulation and
strategic decision-making. Similarly, Han (2023) reported that fresh graduates always struggle with workplace
anxiety and stress, especially when they are tasked to manage sensitive or ambiguous crisis events. Collectively,
these findings suggest that theoretical exposure to communication models, whether strategic or interpersonal
contexts, does not adequately prepare students to handle the complex and fast evolving of real-world crisis
scenarios.
This theoretical-practical mismatch is especially evident in the Malaysian higher education context, where the
focus on academic achievement, content mastery, and standardized assessments often overshadow the
development of applied professional competencies (Zaini et al., 2022). University curricula are frequently
dominated by lectures, written exams and textbook-driven instruction. This offers limited opportunities for
students to engage in authentic and experiential learning activities. As a result, students are evaluated primarily
based on their ability to recall information instead of their capacity to apply communication strategies under
pressure or in ethically complex crisis contexts. This misalignment between what university students are taught
and what they are expected to perform in the workplace compromises the goal of producing crisis-ready
graduates who can actively contribute to organizational resilience.
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The need for practical crisis communication training has been emphasized by numerous scholars (Ornellas et al.,
2019; Mikusova et al., 2019). Agilan (2025) and Fantinelli et al. (20204) argue that even the most well-designed
theoretical frameworks are of limited value unless students are trained to apply them in dynamic and
unpredictable situations. In the Malaysian, Zaini et al. (2022) observed that many universities continue to
prioritize cognitive knowledge over skill development, a practice that impairs university students’ readiness for
complex, real-time workplace demands. Succi (2019) also noted a gap between university instruction and
employer expectations, particularly in relation to soft skills such as critical thinking, decision-making and
persuasive communication, all of which are vital during crisis situations.
To bridge these gaps, scholars have advocated for the adoption of scenario-based learning, stakeholder
simulations and performance-based assessment within communication curricula. These approaches not only
strengthen students’ applied communication capacity but also enable university educators to evaluate how
effective students respond to critical variables such as audience perception, responsibility attribution, and
reputational considerations. By embedding these strategies into academic programs, it allows universities to
move beyond passive content delivery and foster students’ ability to perform under pressure, a skill that is
important to crisis readiness. Building on this body of work, this study quantitatively examining the extent to
which students’ understanding of crisis communication concepts translates into applied competency, with
particular attention to training exposure and workplace preparedness. It argues that integrating crisis
communication training into Malaysian university programs is no longer optional, but important for preparing
graduates to meet the evolving challenges of the contemporary professional environment.
Training and Workplace Readiness
As organizations face increasingly complex crises, there is a growing need to embed practical crisis
communication training within higher education curricula. While it is important for university students to master
theoretical knowledge, students must develop applied skills that enable them to perform effectively in high-
pressure situations. Exposure to realistic crisis scenarios through classroom activities like simulations, role-play
exercises and case-based learning has been shown to enhance improve response timing, decision-making skills
and enhance stakeholder engagement (Yook, 2024; Guzzo et al., 2021). These experiential methods provide
opportunities for students to test strategic messaging under simulated pressure, internalize crisis typologies and
receive feedback in controlled and low-risk settings.
Simulations have been widely recognized as a high-impact pedagogical tool in communication education. They
enable university students to take on professional roles such as spokespersons, media liaisons or crisis managers
while navigating dynamic scenarios that mirror real-world reputational threats (O’Donell, 2022). These active
learning experiences enable the transfer of theoretical knowledge like SCCT into practical decision-making,
heightening students’ sensitivity to factors like responsibility attribution and stakeholder perception. Role-
playing, when combined with scenario-based assessments, also cultivates reflexive thinking, emotional
intelligence and the ability to adapt communication strategies under pressure, and these traits are essential for
producing graduates who are well-prepared to manage crises effectively.
Workplace readiness has been recognized as one of the critical predictors of applied communication skills.
Studies indicate that graduates who have received prior training or exposure to crisis scenarios exhibit higher
confidence and competence in managing stakeholder expectations during real crises (Zaini et al., 2022;
Dwiedienawati et al., 2021;). This evidence holds particular significance in the Malaysian higher education
context, where curricula often emphasize content mastery and written examinations over situational agility and
applied performance (Deliva, 2023; Kaur et al., 2024). This misalignment between university outputs and
industry needs reinforces the urgency of intergating outcome-based, performance-driven assessments in crisis
communication education.
This study frames workplace readiness, shaped through experiential training, as a key variable in evaluating
crisis communication competencies. By examining students’ exposure to formal training alongside their
perceived preparedness for professional crisis scenarios, the research seeks to determine how these factors affect
the selection of response strategies, attribution of crisis responsibility, and ability to manage organizational
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reputation. In doing so, the study supports curriculum reform initiatives aimed at aligning graduate capabilities
with the demands of crisis-intensive work environments.
Crisis Response Strategy as a Mediating Mechanism
Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) proposes the effectiveness of crisis communication does not
only depend on crisis type and responsibility attribution, but also on the strategic response chosen. Coombs
(2010b) identifies four main categories of crisis response strategies which are deny, diminish, rebuild, and
bolster. Each one of those strategies suited to different crisis contexts and it shapes how audiences interpret the
organization’s actions and influence reputational outcomes (Coombs, 2020). In an educational setting, the ability
of students to select appropriate crisis responses reflects their internalization of strategic thinking and practical
application of theory. Therefore, this study conceptualizes crisis response strategy as a mediating mechanism
that explains how preparedness factors such as understanding crisis types, workplace readiness, training
exposure, and responsibility attribution lead to competent crisis communication.
Assessment Practices in Higher Education
Assessment is a pivotal component in determining whether students have achieved intended learning outcomes,
particularly in communication education where applied competencies are crucial. In theory, higher education
institutions are expected to align learning outcomes, teaching methods, and assessments (Hamdoun. 2023). This
process is known as constructive alignment (Biggs & Tang, 2011). Similarly, Bloom’s taxonomy has traditionally
guided educators to scaffold cognitive learning from lower-order thinking (e.g., recall) to higher-order skills
(e.g., analysis, evaluation, and creation). However, despite these frameworks, a persistent gap remains between
intended learning outcomes and actual assessment practices, particularly in evaluating students’ ability to
perform in dynamic, real-world situations such as crisis communication.
Traditional assessment models in Malaysian universities still rely heavily on written examinations, closed-ended
quizzes, and group presentations, which prioritize content memorization and passive understanding (Deliva,
2023). These methods often fail to capture students’ adaptive reasoning, emotional regulation, and strategic
communication under pressure. Those skills are vital in crisis scenarios, but they cannot be measured through
pen-and-paper tests. Such methods are ill-suited for assessing crisis communication competencies, which require
nuanced decision-making, timing, and audience awareness (Yook, 2024). This is particularly problematic when
institutions claim to foster 21st-century skills without aligning those goals to how students are evaluated.
To address this disconnection, researchers and educators (Davis et al., 2023; Ahmad, 2020) have advocated for
authentic and performance-based assessment models including simulations, scenario-based tasks, timed
stakeholder responses, and reflective analyses of communication strategy. Compared to the traditional formats,
these assessments require students to demonstrate applied competencies in realistic contexts as it mirrors
workplace demands and enabling the measurement of crisis readiness. Liu (2023) and Norris et al. (2023) argue
that such methods not only reveal cognitive understanding but also test emotional intelligence, adaptability, and
professional judgment which are important during organizational crises.
In Malaysia, these concerns are reflected in national policy goals. The Twelfth Malaysia Plan (12MP) emphasizes
human capital development and workforce adaptability as key pillars of economic resilience. Similarly, the
Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA) outlines a shift toward competency-based education, urging
institutions to ensure that assessment methods reflect industry needs and graduate capabilities. However, in
practice, curriculum reviews and external program audits often focus more on documentation compliance than
on whether students can demonstrate skilful action in ambiguous, high-stakes situations (Komara et al., 2025;
Aliza Ali, 2023) such as crisis communication.
This study responds to these structural challenges by examining how current assessment practices at Malaysian
universities evaluate crisis communication competencies. It explores the extent to which students are assessed
based on their ability to analyze crisis types, attribute responsibility, and choose appropriate response strategies.
The findings aim to contribute to curriculum reform, advocating for more authentic, context-specific assessments
that support the development of crisis-ready graduates, an urgent priority for both educational institutions and
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employers. While previous research (Siddique et al., 2022) has examined how factors like training and workplace
readiness influence students’ communication skills, few studies have investigated the underlying mechanism that
explains how these factors contribute to communication performance during crises. Most existing work (Fannes
et al., 2024; Thakur & Hale. 2022) has tested direct relationships, leaving the role of crisis response strategy as
a mediator largely unexplored especially in the context of higher education and non-Western, collectivist cultures
like Malaysia. To address this gap, the present study applies SCCT to test a mediation model, focusing on how
students’ preparedness influences their crisis communication competency through their strategic response
decisions. This approach offers theoretical and practical insights for improving crisis communication training in
Malaysian universities.
Theoretical Framework
This study adopts Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT), developed by Coombs (2007), as the
guiding framework to assess undergraduate students’ crisis communication competencies. SCCT provides a
structured, empirically supported model that links the nature of a crisis with strategic communication responses,
primarily grounded in stakeholders’ attribution of responsibility and perceptions of reputational threat.
Traditionally, SCCT has been applied in organizational and corporate communication settings, guiding
organizations via spokespersons or communication professionals to craft responses that preserve public trust and
organizational legitimacy. However, this study extends the application of SCCT into a pre-professional
educational context, where undergraduates students are being prepared for roles requiring strategic and high-
stakes communication. This theoretical extension is both timely and essential given the increasing emphasis on
graduate employability, communication resilience and crisis adaptability in higher education. To ensure
theoretical alignment, the study adapts core SCCT constructs for individual-level operationalization, enabling
assessment of students’ preparedness within simulated crisis scenarios:
Crisis Type Identification: Rather than organizational-level crises, students evaluated crisis scenarios
relevant to future work environments (e.g., interpersonal conflict, reputational incidents in teams),
maintaining SCCT’s tripartite classification: victim, accidental, and preventable crises.
Responsibility Attribution: Responsibility attribution reflects students’ ethical reasoning and
accountability orientation, which in turn influence their crisis response behavior. While SCCT originally
focuses on how stakeholders assign blame to organizations, this study adapts the construct to assess how
students internalize accountability in professional-like crisis scenarios. This reframing captures their
cognitive capacity to evaluate responsibility and their ethical readiness to assume appropriate roles in
responding to reputational threats, thereby reflecting a key dimension of preparedness for the workplace.
Crisis Response Strategy: SCCT’s typology of response strategies which are deny, diminish, rebuild, and
bolster were retained. Students were tasked with selecting and justifying responses in simulated
scenarios, promoting strategic decision-making aligned with reputational considerations.
Stakeholder Perception: Students were asked to consider how various internal and external stakeholders
(e.g., peers, supervisors, clients) might perceive the crisis and response. This cultivated audience-
centered thinking, consistent with SCCT’s emphasis on managing stakeholder expectations.
This adaptation is justified on two levels. First, SCCT is rooted in attribution theory, which can be meaningfully
applied to both individual and collective actors, making it suitable for modeling students’ reasoning around
blame, responsibility, and response. Second, the adapted framework reframes SCCT constructs as educational
learning outcomes, emphasizing cognitive insight, strategic reasoning, contextual judgment, and ethical
reflexivity. This positions SCCT not merely as a post-crisis managerial model but as a developmental tool for
pre-professionals in communication-intensive environments
Importantly, this study also incorporates cultural framing by situating SCCT within Malaysia’s collectivist
sociocultural context. In collectivist cultures, values such as group harmony, shared responsibility, and indirect
communication are deeply embedded in professional and interpersonal behavior (Hofstede, 2011). As a result,
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students may interpret crises not as isolated personal threats but as relational disruptions affecting collective
identity. Responsibility attribution, in this context, is likely shaped by obligations to maintain social cohesion
and institutional image rather than solely individual agency. Moreover, communication styles in Malaysia tend
to emphasize face-saving, reputational preservation and deference, which may influence students’ strategic
decision-making. For example, students may be more inclined to use response strategies such as rebuild or
bolster, which focus on restoring trust and reaffirm values, rather than deny, which can be perceived as
disrespectful and confrontational. This highlights the need to interpret SCCT's attribution and response
dimensions through a culturally sensitive framework, particularly when applying the theory to the non-Western,
collectivist contexts in which university students are being prepared for high-stakes communication roles.
By embedding SCCT within this study’s design and culturally responsive framework, the research bridges the
gap between organizational theory and higher education praxis, offering a replicable and adaptable model for
evaluating, enhancing, and contextualizing crisis communication competencies in diverse learning
environments.
Conceptual Framework
This study adopts a theory-informed conceptual framework grounded in Situational Crisis Communication
Theory (SCCT) to examine the predictors of crisis communication competency among undergraduate students
in Malaysian higher education. The framework reflects the integration of theoretical understanding, perceived
preparedness, and applied skills necessary for managing organizational crises effectively.
Fig. 1 Conceptual framework of the study
Crisis communication competency, the dependent variable, refers to students’ ability to recognize crisis types,
assess stakeholder expectations, and deploy appropriate response strategies. SCCT (Coombs, 2010b) provides a
structured lens for identifying these crisis types (victim, accidental, preventable), the corresponding level of
responsibility attribution, and the appropriate communicative responses (deny, diminish, rebuild, bolster).
In this framework, four independent variables are proposed:
Understanding of Crisis Types: the student’s ability to distinguish between different crisis scenarios.
Perceived Workplace Readiness: the student’s self-assessment of preparedness for professional crisis
situations.
Crisis Communication Training: the extent of formal or experiential training received in crisis
communication contexts.
Attribution of Crisis Responsibility: the ability to evaluate who or what is responsible for the crisis and
adjust messaging accordingly.
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These variables are hypothesized to influence the student’s overall crisis communication competency.
Additionally, the model proposes a mediating variable, Crisis Response Strategy, which reflects students’
capacity to select suitable SCCT-aligned communication strategies in response to different crisis scenarios. This
conceptual framework reflects both the theoretical expectations of SCCT and the pedagogical emphasis on
outcome-based education and authentic assessment. It supports the development of measurable constructs that
can guide hypothesis testing and curriculum reform in Malaysian higher education.
As illustrated in Figure 1, this study proposes the following mediation hypotheses:
H1: Crisis response strategy mediates the relationship between understanding of crisis types and crisis
communication competency.
H2Crisis response strategy mediates the relationship between students’ perceived preparedness and crisis
communication competency.
H3: Crisis response strategy mediates the relationship between crisis communication training and crisis
communication competency.
These hypotheses collectively examine how both cognitive and experiential preparedness factors when
processed through strategic decision-making aligned with SCCT contribute to students’ ability to respond
effectively during crisis communication scenarios.
METHODOLOGY
This study employed a quantitative, cross-sectional survey design to investigate the crisis communication
competencies of undergraduate students at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). The design was appropriate
for testing hypothesised relationships between students’ understanding of crisis types, training exposure,
workplace readiness, and the mediating role of crisis response strategy in shaping their ability to manage
workplace-related crisis scenarios. Data were collected using a structured, self-administered online questionnaire
comprising closed-ended items to ensure response consistency and enable statistical analysis. A total of 419
undergraduate students from multiple faculties at UTM Johor Bahru participated in the study.
Participants were recruited through convenience sampling, facilitated by trained student enumerators who
distributed the survey link via faculty WhatsApp groups, course channels, and internal student networks. With
UTM’s undergraduate population estimated at approximately 22,000, the sample represents a response rate of
1.9%, which is deemed acceptable for non-incentivised, voluntary online surveys. According to Serdar et al.
(2021), a minimum of 300 responses is sufficient to detect medium effect sizes with 80% statistical power,
supporting the adequacy of the sample size. The survey instrument consisted of 45 items adapted from validated
instruments in the crisis communication and workplace readiness literature. All items were measured on a five-
point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree). Table 1 outlines the sources of the adapted
measurement items.
TABLE I: Sources of survey items
Construct
Source(s)
Crisis Type
Coombs (2007); Fearn-Banks (2016)
Attribution of Crisis Responsibility
Coombs & Holladay (2005); Heath et al.
(2010)
Crisis Response Strategy
Ulmer et al. (2011)
Perceived Workplace Readiness & Crisis Communication
Training
Lau et al. (2020); Lau et al. (2021)
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A pilot study was conducted with 30 final-year students to assess item clarity, sequencing, and contextual
appropriateness. Based on their feedback, minor revisions were made to improve the clarity of the training and
workplace readiness items. The pilot results demonstrated strong internal reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha
values ranging from 0.81 to 0.89 across all five constructs. The finalized questionnaire was hosted on Google
Forms and disseminated digitally. An introductory note informed respondent of the study’s objectives, voluntary
nature, anonymity, and right to withdraw. No personally identifiable information was collected, and informed
consent was obtained prior to participation. Data were collected over a four-week period, yielding 419 complete
and usable responses.
Quantitative data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 28. Preliminary screening was conducted to
assess data quality, including checks for missing values, normality, and outliers. All variables met acceptable
thresholds for skewness and kurtosis, and no significant outliers were detected. Incomplete responses were
removed through listwise deletion, resulting in a final dataset of 419 valid cases. Descriptive statistics were used
to summarize participant demographics and variable distributions. Reliability analysis using Cronbach’s alpha
confirmed internal consistency for all multi-item scales.For the purpose of this study, perceived preparedness
was conceptualized as a composite variable combining two elements: (1) workplace readiness and (2) prior
exposure to crisis communication training. These components were aggregated into a single index to reflect
students’ overall self-assessed preparedness for workplace crises.
To test the mediation hypotheses (H1 to H3), the study employed Hayes’ PROCESS macro (Model 4) to examine
whether crisis response strategy mediated the relationships between the three preparedness factors, namely
understanding of crisis types, perceived preparedness, and responsibility attribution, and crisis communication
competency. Bootstrapping with 5,000 samples was used to estimate indirect effects and generate bias-corrected
95 percent confidence intervals. A mediation effect was considered statistically significant if the confidence
interval for the indirect effect did not include zero.
FINDINGS
Respondents’ Demographic Background
A total of 419 undergraduate students from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia participated in the study. Of these,
59.4% were female (n = 249) and 40.6% male (n = 170). The majority were first-year students (40.1%), followed
by third year (21.2%), second year (21.0%), and fourth year (17.7%). Most respondents were aged 18–24 years
(85.4%), with smaller groups aged 25–34 (11.9%) and 35 and above (2.6%). Regarding crisis communication
preparedness, 56.3% had received formal training, while 43.7% had not. Over half (55.1%) reported involvement
in handling or responding to a crisis, through training simulations (25.5%), team-based roles (11.7%), or
individual responses (7.6%). Familiarity with crisis communication strategies was generally low; 62.1% reported
being slightly familiar, and 33.9% not familiar. Only 4% considered themselves moderately to extremely
familiar. Most students (72.3%) had no work experience in corporate settings, while 22.0% had previously
worked and 5.7% were currently employed. These findings provide important context for interpreting students’
crisis communication competencies.
TABLE II: Respondents’ demographic background
Variable
Category
Frequency (n)
Gender
Male
170
Female
249
Year of Study
First Year
168
Second Year
88
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Third Year
89
Fourth Year
74
Age Group
18–24 years
358
25–34 years
50
35 years and above
11
Received Crisis Communication Training
236
56.3
183
43.7
Involved in Handling/Responding to Crisis Situation
231
55.1
49
11.7
107
25.5
32
7.6
Familiarity with Crisis Communication Strategies
Not familiar
142
Slightly familiar
260
Moderately familiar
15
Very familiar
1
Extremely familiar
1
Work Experience in Corporate Setting
Yes, previously
employed
92
Yes, currently
employed
24
No
303
Crisis Response Strategy as a Mediator Between Predictors and Crisis Communication Competency
The following section presents the results of the mediation analyses for Hypotheses H1 through H3. In each
model, the effect of one predictor on crisis communication competency was tested through the mediating role of
crisis response strategy. Results of the indirect and direct effects are presented in Tables 7–10.
Mediation Effect of Crisis Response Strategy on the Relationship Between Understanding of Crisis Types
and Crisis Communication Competency
The analysis of H1 (see Table 3) revealed that understanding of crisis types significantly predicted the use of
crisis response strategies (B = 0.8067, p < .001), and in turn, response strategy significantly predicted crisis
communication competency (B = 1.4386, p < .001). The direct effect of understanding on competency remained
significant (B = 0.4848, p < .001), indicating partial mediation. The indirect effect was also significant (B =
1.1605, 95% CI [1.0420, 1.2816]), supporting the hypothesis that students who are better at identifying and
categorizing crisis types are more likely to apply appropriate strategic responses, which in turn enhances their
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communication competency. These findings align with the assumptions of SCCT, emphasizing that effective
crisis communication begins with accurate crisis appraisal and appropriate response selection.
TABLE III: Mediation Analysis – Crisis types
Path
Coefficient (B)
SE
t
p
LLCI
ULCI
Path a: Understanding →
Strategy
0.8067
0.0328
24.6213
<.001
0.7423
0.8711
Path b: Strategy →
Competency
1.4386
0.0391
36.8247
<.001
1.3618
1.5154
Direct effect (c'):
Understanding →
Competency
0.4848
0.0409
11.8400
<.001
0.4043
0.5652
Indirect effect (a × b)
1.1605
0.0613
—
—
1.0420
1.2816
Mediation Effect of Crisis Response Strategy on the Relationship Between Perceived Preparedness and
Crisis Communication Competency
The results for H2 (see Table 4) indicated that perceived preparedness which are measured through students’
self-assessments of both workplace readiness and prior training exposure is significantly predicted their use of
crisis response strategies (B = 3.1916, p < .001). In turn, these strategies significantly predicted students’
communication competency (B = 1.7993, p < .001). The direct effect of perceived preparedness on
communication competency was not significant (B = –0.3087, p = .4742), indicating a full mediation effect. The
bootstrapped indirect effect was statistically significant (B = 5.7425, 95% CI [3.2611, 8.1544]), supporting the
hypothesis that preparedness enhances students’ communication performance primarily through the application
of strategic response practices.
TABLE IV: Mediation analysis – Perceived preparedness
Path
Coefficient(B)
SE
t
p
95% CI (LLCI – ULCI)
Perceived Preparedness → Crisis
Response Strategy
3.1916
0.6973
4.5771
< .001
[1.8209, 4.5622]
Crisis Response Strategy →
Communication Competency
1.7993
0.0295
60.9209
< .001
[1.7412, 1.8573]
Perceived Preparedness →
Communication Competency (c′)
–0.3087
0.4310
–0.7163
.4742
[–1.1559, 0.5385]
Indirect effect via Crisis
Response Strategy
5.7425
1.2387
—
—
[3.2611, 8.1544]
Mediation Effect of Crisis Response Strategy on the Relationship Between Responsibility Attribution and
Crisis Communication Competency
The results (see Table 5) showed that responsibility attribution significantly predicted students’ use of crisis
response strategies (B = 0.8218, p < .001), and in turn, crisis response strategy significantly predicted crisis
communication competency (B = 1.3105, p < .001). The direct effect of responsibility attribution on
communication competency also remained significant (B = 0.5952, p < .001), indicating partial mediation. The
indirect effect was statistically significant (B = 1.0770, 95% CI [0.9678, 1.1874]), confirming that students’
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sense of responsibility enhances their communication competency both directly and indirectly through the
application of strategic responses. These findings reinforce the SCCT principle that perceptions of responsibility
shape communicative choices and outcomes during crises.
TABLE V: Mediation analysis – Attribution of crisis responsibility
Path
Coefficient
(B)
SE
t
p
95% CI (LLCI
– ULCI)
Responsibility Attribution → Crisis Response
Strategy
0.8218
0.0283
28.9970
<
.001
[0.7661, 0.8775]
Crisis Response Strategy → Communication
Competency
1.3105
0.0408
32.1118
<
.001
[1.2303, 1.3908]
Responsibility Attribution → Communication
Competency (direct effect)
0.5952
0.0410
14.5087
<
.001
[0.5145, 0.6758]
Indirect effect via Crisis Response Strategy
1.0770
0.0571
—
—
[0.9678, 1.1874]
DISCUSSION
This study investigated the mediating role of crisis response strategy in the relationship between three student
preparedness factors and crisis communication competency. The analysis revealed that crisis response strategy
significantly mediated all three hypothesised relationships. Understanding of crisis types and responsibility
attribution exhibited partial mediation, while perceived preparedness (combination of workplace readiness and
training exposure) showed full mediation. These results reinforce the view that knowledge or exposure alone
does not ensure competency; rather, students must be able to translate that preparedness into the strategic
selection of appropriate crisis responses, consistent with the principles of Situational Crisis Communication
Theory (SCCT).
The partial mediation observed in H1 and H3 suggests that cognitive appraisal and ethical judgment exert both
direct and indirect influences on communication performance. Students who can accurately identify crisis types
and attribute responsibility appropriately appear capable of communicating effectively, even when not fully
applying formalized strategic responses. This highlights the intrinsic value of conceptual clarity and moral
reasoning during crisis situations. In contrast, the full mediation in H2 indicates that general workplace readiness
and prior training are insufficient unless students can enact that preparedness through strategic action. This
supports the argument that applied, not passive, knowledge is the most critical determinant of communicative
competency.
These findings contribute to theory by extending SCCT beyond organizational crisis management into
educational and developmental contexts. Although SCCT was originally designed to guide institutional
communication during high-stakes crises, this study illustrates its relevance for pre-professionals navigating
simulated or instructional decision-making scenarios. Students, though lacking formal authority, are still capable
of enacting strategic roles that resemble those of organizational actors. This suggests that SCCT’s attributional
logic and response typologies can be reframed as pedagogical tools that serve as measurable learning outcomes
that reflect students’ cognitive, ethical, and communicative development. In doing so, the study positions SCCT
not only as a managerial framework but also as a versatile educational model for shaping future crisis
communicators.
The results also align with and expand upon existing research in applied crisis communication. Previous studies
by Coombs (2022) and Liu-Lastres et al. (2023) emphasized the importance of aligning response strategies with
crisis types and stakeholder expectations. This study adds a new layer by demonstrating how students’ use of
crisis response strategies mediates their performance outcomes, especially in the domains of preparedness and
training. These findings align with performance-based learning literature, which emphasizes that theoretical
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knowledge must be reinforced through critical reflection, experiential practice, and feedback. Additionally, the
evidence that responsibility attribution gives both direct and indirect effects highlights the importance ethical
reflexivity. Students who internalize responsibility are more likely to respond competence and deliberation,
supporting Morley and Jamil’s (2021) argument that moral reasoning remains overlooked yet vital aspect of
crisis communication education.
Cultural context served a central lens in interpreting students’ strategic choices. In Malaysia’s collectivist society,
communication is shaped by norms that emphasize indirect communication, group harmony and the preservation
of face. These values were evident in students’ preferences for restore-oriented strategies, such as rebuild and
bolster, over confrontational approaches like denial. Responsibility attribution was frequently framed in
relational terms, with students framing crises as collective threats rather than individual shortcomings. Such
patterns are consistent with Hofstede’s (2011) cultural dimensions and underscore the importance of culturally
responsive communication pedagogy. In high-context cultures, it is not adequate to teach strategic models in
isolation; university students must also develop the ability to interpret situational cues and craft responses that
are align with stakeholders’ expectations and cultural norms.
Ultimately, the findings carry important pedagogical implications for higher education. Curriculum design
should extend beyond declarative knowledge to include scenario-based activities that cultivate decision-making,
ethical reasoning under pressure and stakeholder sensitivity. Assessments should simulate reputational
challenges and require students to justify their chosen response strategies. Crisis communication training must
also embed cultural intelligence, enabling students to adjust their strategies to different organizational and
cultural contexts. By embedding SCCT within a culturally responsive and performance-driven curriculum,
Malaysian universities can more effectively prepare university students for high-stakes communication roles in
complex, real-world environments.
Theoretical Implications
This study makes several theoretical contributions by extending the application of SCCT into the context of
higher education. Traditionally, SCCT focuses on how organizational spokespersons manage stakeholders’
perceptions during crises. This research however demonstrates that its core principles which are crisis type
identification, responsibility attribution and strategic response can be effectively adapted to evaluate and
strengthen students’ crisis communication and management competencies before they enter the workforce.
The key theoretical advancement lies in positioning crisis response strategy as a mediating mechanism that
bridges preparedness with performance. Findings from H1 and H3 (partial mediation) suggest that cognitive
understanding and ethical awareness influence communication competency both directly and indirectly through
strategic application. Meanwhile, H2 and H3 (full mediation) underscore that training and workplace readiness
alone are not sufficient. They have to be accompanied by the ability to apply appropriate response strategies to
be effective. This reconceptualizes SCCT not only as a reactive framework for managing crises but also as a
developmental tool for shaping strategic thinking at the individual level.
Importantly, the study situates SCCT within Malaysia’s collectivist cultural context, where values such as group
harmony, deference, and face-saving significantly shape communication behavior. Responsibility attribution, in
this setting, is not only about individual accountability but also about preserving collective image and
institutional trust. These cultural influences expand SCCT’s attribution construct, which has largely been framed
through Western, individualist assumptions. The findings suggest the need for culturally nuanced adaptations of
SCCT that consider how strategic communication decisions are shaped by social norms and interdependence,
especially in high-context societies. By reframing SCCT to fit educational and cultural contexts, this study
broadens its theoretical utility, paving the way for future research on strategic communication training,
attribution processes, and intercultural adaptation of crisis frameworks in non-Western academic settings.
Practical Implications
The findings offer actionable recommendations for higher education institutions aiming to build communication
resilience among graduates. Although students exhibited varying levels of theoretical understanding, training
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and workplace exposure, the strongest predictor of competency was their ability to apply appropriate crisis
response strategies. This finding carries important implications for curriculum reform, emphasizing the need to
shift from passive knowledge delivery to applied, performance-driven learning approaches.
Universities should integrate simulation-based modules, role-playing activities and crisis scenario exercises to
ensure students acquire procedural fluency in high-pressure contexts. The full mediation observed in H2 and H3
indicates that experiential exposure alone is insufficient for building competency; students must practice
applying strategies that align with stakeholder expectations, ethical standards and reputational risk. Embedding
such activities within capstone projects or dedicated crisis communication and management courses would
enable students to translate preparedness into effective real-world decision-making. Moreover, these reforms
should also align with the Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA) guidelines and national policy priorities as
outlined in the Twelfth Malaysia Plan (12MP), both of which emphasize employability, digital readiness and soft
skills. Developing microcredential courses in crisis communication whether stackable, modular or industry-
relevant can further support students across disciplines, equipping them with critical workplace competencies
regardless of their academic specialization. Another practical insight lies in the significance of responsibility
attribution. Students who internalized ethical responsibility are more likely to perform better even without formal
training or prior experience. This reinforces the value of incorporating affective learning components into crisis
communication education including ethical reflection, stakeholder perspective-taking and accountability
journaling. Such strategies not only develop technical skill but also cultivate values-based decision-making,
which is essential in professional environments marked by uncertainty and complexity.
In sum, this study advocates a multidimensional approach to crisis communication education, one that is
cognitive, behavioral, and affective. By grounding training in theory, culture, and applied practice, universities,
particularly in Malaysia, can better prepare students to communicate with clarity, empathy, and strategy in future
crisis contexts.
Limitations
This study, while offering valuable insights, is subject to several limitations. First, its cross-sectional design
limits causal interpretation. Although significant associations were identified, the direction and temporal order
of relationships cannot be established. Longitudinal research would better capture how crisis communication
competencies evolve, especially in response to training and workplace exposure.
Second, the study was conducted at a single Malaysian public university. Despite including students from
multiple faculties, institutional variations in curriculum, culture, and crisis-related exposure may affect
generalizability. Cross-institutional research is recommended to improve external validity. Finally, the use of
self-reported data introduces potential bias, particularly in constructs such as perceived competency and
responsibility attribution. While validated instruments were employed, these subjective measures may not reflect
actual capability. Future studies could incorporate performance-based assessments or instructor evaluations
during simulations to strengthen measurement accuracy.
Suggestions for Future Research
To advance the findings of this study, several avenues for future research are recommended. First, longitudinal
research is needed to trace how students’ crisis communication competencies develop over time, especially
before and after interventions such as simulations, coursework, or internships. This would allow assessment of
both immediate learning gains and long-term skill transfer into professional settings.
Second, multi-institutional and cross-cultural studies should be undertaken to explore differences across
universities, disciplines, and national contexts. Such designs would help identify how institutional practices,
programme structures, and cultural norms influence students’ crisis preparedness. Third, future work should
incorporate psychosocial and cultural moderators such as emotional intelligence, collectivist orientation, and
personality traits as these may influence how students internalize responsibility or apply communication
strategies. For example, students with higher emotional regulation may respond more competently in high-stakes
or ambiguous situations.
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Fourth, experimental and quasi-experimental designs are needed to evaluate the pedagogical efficacy of SCCT-
informed interventions. Using pre-test/post-test methods, simulation trials, or scenario-based assessments can
determine whether targeted instruction enhances students’ strategic communication capabilities in measurable
ways. Finally, future research should develop and validate performance-based tools to assess crisis
communication competency. Triangulating self-reports with structured observations, peer assessments, or rubric-
based evaluations during simulations would yield a more accurate and multidimensional understanding of
student performance.
CONCLUSION
This study investigated how crisis response strategy mediates the relationship between key preparedness factors
including understanding of crisis types, workplace readiness, training exposure and responsibility attribution as
well as students’ crisis communication competency. Grounded in SCCT and contextualized within Malaysia’s
collectivist educational context, the findings confirm that crisis response strategy serves as a critical behavioral
mechanism that transforms experience, knowledge and ethical orientation into effective action.
The mediation analysis revealed two distinct patterns. Understanding of crisis types and responsibility attribution
showed partial mediation, while training exposure and workplace readiness demonstrated full mediation. These
results suggest that although cognitive understanding and ethical awareness can directly influence performance,
the application of strategic responses remains important, particularly in converting experiential learning into
effective communication under pressure. Theoretically, this research extends SCCT into pre-professional
contexts, demonstrating its relevance for modeling individual strategic behavior in simulated high-stakes
situations. Practically, the study highlights the need for curricula that integrate strategic reasoning, scenario-
based learning and cultural awareness to cultivate crisis-ready graduates. Universities, particularly in Malaysia,
must not only expose students to crisis concepts but also train them to respond with empathy, agility and
accountability.
To end with, this research offers a theory-informed, empirically tested framework for understanding and
developing crisis communication competency among undergraduates. By aligning cognitive, affective and
behavioral dimensions of preparedness with SCCT and Malaysian cultural norms, this research offers both
conceptual clarity and actionable insights for enhancing graduate readiness in communication-intensive careers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was funded by Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) under the Potential Academic Staff Research
Grant (Vote No. Q.J130000.2753.03K87.)
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