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Flood Hazard and Prevention Strategies Towards Sustainable
Economic Development and Proper Community Planning in
Yenagoa, Bayelsa State, Nigeria.
Nwagwu, Apollos Chuks; Egbuchilem, Boniface & Ogbodo, Ogomegbunam Immaculate
Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences, Ignatius Ajuru
University of Education Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000178
Received: 02 October 2025 2025; Accepted: 07 October 2025; Published: 06 November 2025
ABSTRACT
The study examined the strong relationship between residents’ locations, economic status, and flood prevention
strategiess. The study adopted survey research design imploring the use of primary and secondary sources of
data. The primary data were generated through the use of 330 copies of questionnaires administered to 330
randomly selected respondents in the study area. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics such as simple
percentage while a Pearson Product moment Correlation (PPMC) statistical technique was used to test
hypothesis. The data analysis revealed that occupation significantly influences how residents respond to flood
hazards. The P-value of 0.000 was lower than the Alpha level of 0.05. The result showed that where people
live, their economic situation, and how they try to prevent flood damage are all connected. Some of the ways
people protect their homes include building raised pavements, raising the level of their floors, using small bridges
to cross water, and filling their yards with sand. The study also suggests that people's behaviors and choices
about flood protection might change depending on how much money they have because some solutions cost
more than others. However, the study further warns that business owners, property developers, farmers,
fishermen, and traders remain highly vulnerable to severe floods, particularly when planning is inadequate or
financial resources are limited.
Keyword: Flood, prevention strategies, sustainable economic development, Flood hazards, proper Community
planning, Yenagoa.
INTRODUCTION
Over the past twenty years, the rapid growth of populations coupled with significant economic transformations
has driven cities and urban centers to become the primary habitats for humans worldwide. This urbanization has
brought with it a range of environmental challenges, notably urban flood hazards, which affect both developing
and developed economies. It is important to recognize that cities and towns already bear the brunt of natural
disasters such as flooding, with every corner of the landscape falling within a drainage basin or another (Oku,
2011). Many of the world’s largest urban areas are situated along coastlines, rivers, and floodplains—regions
that are inherently more vulnerable when natural disasters occur. As urban areas expand to meet the increasing
demand for housing, infrastructure, industrial growth, tourism, and commercial activities, natural drainage
patterns are often ignored or inadequately analyzed and utilized within flood-prone zones. This neglect has
resulted in frequent and devastating urban flood hazards, which are more alarming today than ever before.
Numerous researchers—such as Akintonla (1978, 1994), Ayoade & Akintola (1978), Enerd (1981), Olaniran
(1983), Oriola (1994), Babatola (1996), Ologunorisa (1999), and Oku et al. (2011)—have critically examined
flood problems, perceptions, response strategies, frequency, and adjustment mechanisms in various Nigerian
towns. Their findings consistently show that particular attention has been given to how individuals perceive and
adapt to flood hazards, with these responses often influenced by land use patterns on floodplains and the severity
and frequency of flooding events. Key factors contributing to flooding in Yenagoa include channel modifications
driven by urbanization and the indiscriminate disposal of refuse into drainage channels, which obstruct water
flow and exacerbate flooding problems (Odermcho, 1985; Oku, 1997; Oyegun, 1997). This study aims to
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contribute further to the body of knowledge on flood management by specifically assessing the adjustment
strategies employed by residents of Yenagoa’s flood-prone areas. By doing so, it seeks to inform policymakers
and urban planners about effective measures and community-based solutions for mitigating flood hazards.
Ultimately, understanding these adjustment mechanisms is essential for developing sustainable flood control
strategies that are culturally appropriate and physically feasible, ensuring the safety and resilience of
communities in Yenagoa amidst increasing environmental challenges. In the context of Yenagoa, a city
characterized by diverse cultural practices and varying physical landscapes, residents continue to live and work
in flood-prone areas such as Igbogene, Swali, Ebogoro, and Azikoro. These neighborhoods encompass mixed
land uses—including commercial, industrial, and residential zones—making the understanding of local
adjustment strategies particularly vital. While previous studies have explored community attitudes toward floods
and adaptation mechanisms, they often involved complex and extensive methodologies. Consequently, there
remains a need for targeted research to inform flood mitigation efforts in Yenagoa by understanding how
residents perceive, respond to, and cope with flood risks. Studies conducted in other regions further emphasize
that perception and adjustment strategies are not uniform across different spaces. For example, Leight and
Kwaisim (1983) analyzed the attitudinal responses of flood victims in Malaysia, while Erickson (1970) carried
out similar research in New Zealand, and Oya (1970) focused on Japan. These studies demonstrate that both
perception and coping mechanisms vary significantly depending on local contexts, culture, and physical terrain.
Therefore, it is crucial to understand that flood hazards and responses are not universally identical; instead, they
are shaped by specific cultural, technological, and geographical factors. It is also noteworthy that cultural
orientations within different regions influence how communities perceive and respond to flood hazards.
Variations are evident across space, as people live and work in areas prone to flooding. White (1973) focused
on urban floodplain dwellers, while Burton et al. (1964) examined rural communities in parts of the United
States, emphasizing attitudes, perceptions, and adjustment behaviors related to flood risks. These studies
highlight the importance of understanding human responses to flood hazards, which vary based on cultural,
social, and physical factors. Historically, the study of natural hazards, including floods, is not new. Pioneering
research by scholars such as Burton and Kates (1964), Burton, Kate, and White (1968), Mitchell (1981), and
others (cited by Ekuase&Mogekwu, 2021), has helped elucidate the trends and characteristics of natural hazards.
The origins of such research trace back to the United States in the 1930s, where careful observation of urbanizing
river catchment areas revealed significant challenges in flood management and control. These insights led to the
enactment of legislation such as the Flood Control Act of 1936, which was designed to reduce flood hazards
through structural and non-structural measures.
The Study Area
The southeast trade wind, which originates over the moist South Atlantic Ocean, carries significant moisture and
influences Nigeria's weather, particularly during the rainy season, which spans from February to November.
During this period, the moist south-west wind system predominantly brings rainfall to the region, contributing
to its lush vegetation and humid climate. Conversely, the northeast trade winds, originating from the hot and arid
Sahara Desert, bring dry conditions as they pass over the desert before reaching Nigeria. These dry winds tend
to influence the northern parts of Nigeria, including Bayelsa's coastal communities, bringing hot and dry weather
during certain periods. The climate system in Nigeria, especially the rainfall pattern, is largely influenced by the
interaction of two dominant pressure and wind systems. These are generated by two dynamically sustained sub-
tropical high-pressure cells; one situated over the Azores Archipelago off the coast of North Africa and the other
over the St. Helena Islands near the coast of Namibia. These high-pressure centers, or anticyclones, persistently
form and influence the regional atmospheric circulation, driving the northeast trade winds and southeast trade
winds over the South Atlantic Ocean. These wind patterns, originating from their respective pressure systems,
traverse the region of Bayelsa, shaping the climatic and weather conditions experienced there. The soil
composition within the study area consists of various superficial deposits that overlay thick layers of tertiary
sandy and clayey formations, some of which extend to depths exceeding 100 meters in certain locations. These
geological features influence the region’s land use, agriculture, and drainage patterns, further shaping the
environmental and socio-economic landscape of Yenagoa LGA. The geographical location of Bayelsa State near
the equator ensures it is endowed with abundant sunshine throughout the year. The sun's position remains nearly
overhead for much of the year, resulting in longer daylight hours. However, the overall solar radiation reaching
the surface is somewhat moderated by cloud cover, a consequence of the region’s coastal environment. This
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
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cloudiness, along with other climatic influences such as the Harmattan winds and the effects of local vegetation,
contributes to slight variations in temperature on daily, monthly, and annual scales. The designated study area is
Yenagoa Local Government Area (LGA) situated within Bayelsa State, as illustrated in Figure 1.
Geographically, this region is positioned along latitudinal lines ranging from approximately 4˚48'00'' North to
5˚24'10'' North, and longitudinally between 6˚12'00'' East and 6˚39'30'' East. It shares borders with Rivers State
to the north and east, Kolokuma/Opokuma LGA to the northwest and west, Ogbia LGA to the southeast, and
Southern Ijaw to the southwest. As per the 1996 population estimate, Yenagoa LGA had an approximate
population of 352,285 residents.
METHODOLOGY
We gave out 350 questionnaires, which are like questionnaires or forms, to people living in areas that sometimes
get flooded in places called Tombia, Igbogene, Swali, Akaibiri, Okolobiri, Yenegwe, and Amarata. We picked
who to give the questionnaires to using a fair way called simple random sampling, where we used a special table
of numbers to choose randomly. We gave these forms to people living in those areas. Out of the 350 we gave
out, 330 people filled them out and returned them back to us. That means most of the people we asked, about 94
out of 100, answered our questions.
Data Analysis
Data for the study were analysed using table and simple percentages. Hypotheses were tested using Pearson
Product Moment correlation (PPMC). Occupation (socioeconomic factor) and Flood strategy data were coded
in SPSS in order to compute a true correlation coefficient r and p-value statistically
RESULTS
Table 1: Sex structured of respondents
Sex
Number
Percentages
Male
190
57.6
Female
140
42.4
Total
330
100
Figure 1: Map showing the study area in Yenagoa, Bayelsa State
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Based on the table, we can see that about 58% of the people who answered the questions were boys, and about
42% were girls. These groups gave us important information about the problem we studied.
Table 2: Tenancy states of respondents
Tenancy status
Number
Percentages
Tenants
280
84.8
Landlords / Landlady
50
15.2
Total
330
100
Table 2 tells us that about 85 out of 100 people are tenants, meaning for every 1 landlord, there are about 5
tenants in Yenagoa.
Table 3: Occupation characteristics of flood-prone occupants
Occupation
Number
Percentages
Students
20
6.0%
Business
100
30.3%
Civil Servants
180
54.6%
Farmers
30
9.1%
Total
330
100
Table 3 shows that about half of the people we talked to are civil servants (people who work for the government).
About one-third are business people, and the remaining few are mostly students and farmers.
Table 4: Do people know about floods before they move to the new place.
Questions
Number
Percentages
Born in this area
50
15.2
Knew about flood risk before moving to this area
125
37.9
Didn't know about flood risk before moving to this
area Total
155
46.9
Total
330
100
Table 4 tells us that nearly half of the people, about 47 out of 100, didn't know about the risk of floods before
they moved into their homes. About 38 out of 100 people knew about floods but decided to live there anyway.
Only small groups, 15 out of 100, were born in that area and already knew about it.
Table 5: Individual Perception of Annual Flood Frequency Averages
Average
Annual Perception rate
Percentages
1 – 5
102
30.9
6 – 10
210
63.6
11 – 15
16
4.9
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15 and above
2
0.6
Total
330
100
Table 5 shows that about 210 dwellers (63.6%) perceive between 6 and 10 flood hazards annually. This indicates
that the flood menace is high in Yenagoa, given the high perception rate.
Table 6: Adjustment strategies to flood hazards
Adjustment strategy
Number
Percentages
Wooden footbridge
104
31.5
DPC level of (6–9) blocks
80
24.2
Raised pavement
111
33.6
Sand filling of premises
35
10.9
Total
330
100
Table 6 shows how people in Yenagoa deal with the problems caused by floods. About 31.5% of the people use
wooden foot bridges to help them cross flooded areas. Some residents, making up 10.7%, fill their yards with
sand to stop the floodwaters from bothering them. Additionally, 33.6% of the people build raised walkways or
pavements so they can walk more easily even when it's flooded.
Testing of Hypotheses
H₀ (Null Hypothesis): There is no significant relationship between occupation (Socio-Economic factor) and
flood response strategy.
H₁ (Alternative Hypothesis): There is a significant relationship between occupation and flood response strategy.
Data used for statistical computation are reproduced below:
Table 7: Occupation characteristics of flood-prone occupant’s data for statistical computation
Occupation
Number
Percentages
Students
20
6.0%
Business
100
30.3%
Civil Servants
180
54.6%
Farmers
30
9.1%
Total
330
100
Table 8: Adjustment strategies to flood hazards data for statistical computation
Adjustment strategy
Number
Percentages
Wooden footbridge
104
31.5
DPC level of (6–9) blocks
80
24.2
Raised pavement
111
33.6
Sand filling of premises
35
10.9
Total
330
100
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Table 7: Correlation Matrix between Occupation and Flood Adjustment Strategies
Variables
Mean (%)
N
r
p-value
Remark
Occupation vs. Flood
Adjustment Strategy
-
330
-0.825
0.000
Significant
The result in Table 7 above shows a strong negative correlation (r = -0.825, p < 0.05) between occupation and
flood adjustment strategies. This implies that occupation significantly influences how residents respond to flood
hazards. Since calculated p-value of 0.000 is lower than 0,05 significant level, the null hypothesis which state
that there is no significant relationship between occupation (a socioeconomic factor) and flood response strategy
is rejected, and the alternate hypothesis H₁ which state that There is a significant relationship between
occupation and flood response strategy is accepted. Hence, occupation significantly influences the type of flood
response measures adopted by residents in flood-prone communities.
Specifically, civil servants and business owners, who represent higher-income and more stable socio-economic
groups, tend to adopt cost-intensive and technically improved flood control measures such as raised pavements
and DPC-level reinforcements. In contrast, students and farmers, with lower or unstable income levels, rely more
on low-cost and improvised coping mechanisms, such as wooden footbridges or sand filling of premises.
DISCUSSION
Experts who studied floods before said that when people see floods as more or less likely to happen, it changes
how they prepare for them. They also found that people who have more education and money usually understand
floods better and know what to do to stay safe.
Implications for Community Planning and Economic Development
If communities don't think about floods and how to stay safe from them when planning how to build and develop,
many people and things could get hurt or damaged. This includes houses, people who live and work there,
traditional indigenous owners, insurance companies, builders, farmers, fishermen, tourists, environmental
groups, and others who enjoy the area. Without good plans, these floods can cause a lot of trouble and make
things worse. It's very important for governments to work together and have good rules to handle big storms and
floods, especially in places near the coast that are very vulnerable. But because many different laws and
responsibilities from local, state, and national governments can get confusing, it’s hard to make sure everyone
is doing what they should to protect these coastal communities.
Again, flood risk management policies must incorporate socio-economic variables—such as occupation, income,
and education—into vulnerability assessments. Programs should prioritize livelihood empowerment and
microfinance support to enhance adaptive capacity among low-income groups. In terms of Rural and urban
planning, Planners should align flood mitigation efforts with urban land-use zoning and rural livelihood patterns,
ensuring that informal settlements and farming communities are equipped with the infrastructure and technical
knowledge to manage recurrent flooding.
Correlation Analysis of Socio-Economic Factors and Flood Response
The study critically looks at the relationship between occupation (a socioeconomic factor) and flood adjustment
strategies among residents of flood-prone areas using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC)
technique. Data from Tables 3 and 6 were coded numerically to allow correlation analysis between the two
categorical variables. The correlation analysis in Table 7 reveals a strong negative relationship (r = -0.825, p <
0.05) between occupation and flood adjustment strategies. This indicates that occupation significantly influences
the type of flood response measures adopted by residents in flood-prone communities, but the relationship is
inverse in direction.
Specifically, civil servants and business owners, representing relatively higher socioeconomic groups, are more
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likely to adopt structured and cost-intensive adaptation strategies such as raising pavements and elevating DPC
levels (6–9 blocks). Conversely, students and farmers, with lower income stability, tend to rely on less expensive
or improvised coping mechanisms, such as wooden footbridges and sand filling of premises. This pattern mirrors
evidence from other flood‐prone contexts globally. For example, in Accra, Ghana, wealthier households
sometimes employ private dredging of drainage channels or build more permanent structural modifications,
whereas lower‐income residents in marginal informal settlements build temporary structures out of lighter,
cheaper materials or rely on community‐led, ad hoc spillways (Owusu et al., 2021).
This finding corroborates Adelekan (2016) and Nkwunonwo et al. (2020), who observed that socioeconomic
capacity and livelihood type are key determinants of adaptive behavior to flood hazards in developing nations.
It further emphasizes that flood resilience is not merely a function of environmental exposure but is deeply
intertwined with social equity and economic empowerment.
CONCLUSION
This study found that how often people think floods happen, their economic situation, and how they deal with
floods are all connected for people living in areas that are at risk of flooding in Yenagoa. These things also affect
how the city looks and how people manage to work and live in places that can flood.
The PPMC analysis statistically validates that socio-economic characteristics—particularly occupation—
significantly affect flood response behavior. Therefore, effective flood risk management programs in developing
nations should integrate income empowerment, livelihood diversification, and awareness education.
Strengthening the economic capacity of vulnerable groups would enable equitable access to sustainable and
effective flood mitigation strategies.
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