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Who Said Woman Was Not Meant to Fly? Teaching Girls to
Deconstruct Gendered Media
Oluwadara Abimbade1, Moyinoluwa Oripeloye2
1Clemson University Clemson Online
2Clemson University English Department
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000221
Received: 07 October 2025; Accepted: 14 October 2025; Published: 08 November 2025
ABSTRACT
Media continues to reproduce gender stereotypes that shape adolescents’ identities, aspirations, and
opportunities. This qualitative case study, grounded in Feminist Media Theory, examines how media
deconstruction activities supported five middle school girls in critically interpreting gendered advertising.
Through guided analysis of commercials, participants identified patterns of symbolic annihilation, unequal
double standards, and humor masking inequities, while also recognizing resistant texts that promoted
inclusivity and empowerment. Video observations and interviews revealed how the girls articulated both the
personal and societal consequences of stereotypical portrayals and positioned themselves as active, critical
viewers. Their reflections highlight the emotional toll of repeated exposure to gendered media, as well as the
empowering effect of inclusive alternatives. Findings demonstrate that feminist-informed media
deconstruction, when embedded in collaborative learning environments, fosters critical consciousness and
media agency. This paper calls for integrating such approaches into middle school digital literacy curricula to
align with broader gender-equity goals in education.
Keywords: Feminist Media Theory, media deconstruction, gender stereotypes, middle school, digital literacy,
empowerment.
INTRODUCTION
Gender Stereotypes in Media
Gender stereotypes in media have been a persistent issue, reinforcing outdated roles and limiting the diverse
representation of gender identities. Across television, film, advertising, news coverage, and social media, these
stereotypes not only shape public perception but also influence individual identity formation, especially among
youth. While progress has been made through advocacy and scholarship, more inclusive storytelling,
intersectional representation, and industry reform are essential. Despite decades of progress, gender
stereotypes remain deeply embedded in media, advertising, and marketing, influencing societal norms and
individual perceptions from early childhood. While contemporary media increasingly features diverse female
characters, such as superheroes and professional women, these portrayals often reinforce unrealistic
expectations, casting women as “superwomen” balancing career and family seamlessly or objectifying them in
hypersexualized ways. Studies reveal that women are still underrepresented in leadership roles and often
shown in passive or domestic contexts, while men dominate political, technological, and authoritative spaces
(Scarlotta, 2020; Krijnen, 2020; Wood, 1994).
Media sometimes perpetuates traditional gender roles that confine women to domestic, nurturing, or sexualized
roles while portraying men as dominant, aggressive, or stoic (Lauzen, 2018). This binary framing restricts
individual identity and professional aspirations. For instance, girls exposed to stereotypical portrayals are less
likely to perceive themselves as leaders or scientists (Steinke, 2017). Boys, on the other hand, may suppress
emotional expression due to hypermasculine norms displayed in media. Women and girls are often depicted in
ways that emphasize youth, beauty, and passivity, reinforcing harmful stereotypes. In contrast, men are
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typically shown as active, powerful, and emotionally distant (Krijnen, 2020). Krijnen also highlights how
media production itself influences representation, with the underrepresentation of women contributing to their
symbolic annihilation, where women must either accept limited roles or risk being excluded altogether
(Adhikari, 2014).
Advertising sometimes reinforces these divisions, with women frequently shown promoting household items
and men aligned with work or innovation (Jacobson, 2005). A multinational study of 1,755 ads found that
although women made up 50.7% of primary characters, they were still predominantly portrayed in traditional
roles, with cultural context influencing representation (Nasruddin, 2021). In those ads, Women were frequently
portrayed in stereotypically feminine roles, while men were more often shown in professional or work-related
settings. These portrayals of gender roles varied significantly across countries, with some presenting more non-
traditional depictions.
Media and Adolescent Girls
From early childhood through adolescence, girls are exposed to content that consistently underrepresents them
and portrays them in stereotypical or sexualized ways. This exposure begins early, as Atkins (2023) shows in
her study of preschool-aged girls. She found that children internalize gender beliefs through media, often
associating femininity with appearance, emotion, and domestic roles. Girls frequently encounter characters in
children’s shows and books who are passive, nurturing, and visibly concerned with beauty, leading them to
adopt these traits as social expectations.
Media representations continue to shape girls’ perceptions as they grow older. Ward & Grower (2020)
observed that adolescent exposure to television and digital media contributes to stronger endorsement of
traditional gender stereotypes and body image issues. The underrepresentation of females and their portrayal in
traditional roles across platforms from children's media to prime-time TV sends consistent messages about
what is valued in girls and women. These messages affect career ambitions, relationship expectations, and self-
perception (American Psychological Association, 2007). Santoniccolo et al. (2023) further argue that women’s
portrayals remain constrained across all forms of media, often characterized by sexualization and
objectification, which contribute to body dissatisfaction, depression, and anxiety in adolescent girls.
Social media adds a new layer to this influence. Adolescent girls use platforms like Instagram, TikTok, and
Pinterest to express themselves, but these spaces often mirror the same objectifying trends. Papageorgiou et al.
(2022) found that teenage girls feel pressured to conform to appearance-based expectations on social media,
resulting in self-objectification and comparison. Nesi et al. (2023) confirmed that adolescent girls, particularly
those with existing vulnerabilities, report anxiety, social pressure, and low self-worth linked to their daily
interactions with curated online content. Other researchers echo the same concern, identifying a strong link
between social media use and reduced self-esteem in teenage girls (Liberato, 2024; Perkovich, 2021). The
platforms that girls engage with most often are also those that commodify appearance, reinforce thin ideals,
and profit from insecurity.
The sexualization of girls in media has profound developmental implications. The American Psychological
Association (2007) reported that constant exposure to sexualized imagery is associated with low self-esteem,
eating disorders, and an increase in mental health problems among girls. Herring & Kapidzic (2015) found that
teenage girls often present themselves online according to culturally enforced norms of beauty and sexuality,
seeking validation through likes and comments. This desire for approval reinforces gender norms and limits
the space for authentic self-expression.
Expression in Gendered Media
Women’s freedom of expression online is not only about individual empowerment but also collective
participation in democratic processes. The Association for Progressive Communications (2022) describes this
right as vital for women's movements to function as effective digital counter-publics. However, it also
acknowledges that this potential remains unrealized for many due to persistent structural inequities.
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The APC (2022) describes how gender-based abuse ranging from sexualized hate speech and stalking to
doxxing and threats of violence leads to self-censorship, account deletion, and withdrawal from public
discourse. Women journalists, activists, and politicians are particularly vulnerable, facing coordinated and
often politically motivated harassment campaigns (Inter-American Commission on Human Rights [IACHR],
2018; Chocarro). Such abuse disproportionately impacts women from marginalized groups such as women of
color, LGBTQ+ individuals, and those with disabilities who face intensified forms of intersectional violence
(UNESCO, 2022; Chocarro, 2019). These experiences often result in severe mental health consequences, job
abandonment, and decreased visibility in public life.
A recurring theme across literature is the inadequate response of both states and technology platforms to online
violence against women (Moolman et al. 2020; Gans, 2020). Zinnbauer (2024) criticize the inconsistent and
often sexist application of community standards and content moderation policies. Women advocating for
sexual and reproductive rights or critiquing patriarchy frequently face account suspensions or content removal,
while threats and abuse directed at them go unpunished.
While digital spaces hold transformative potential for women and girl’s expression and empowerment, they are
also sites of exclusion and violence (Krings, 2022). To uphold the freedom of expression for women and girls
online, a systemic, multi-level approach is essential, one that addresses not just the symptoms but the root
causes of digital gender inequality (Varghese, & Kumar, 2020). Only through coordinated action by states,
tech companies, civil society, and communities can we build a digital future where all voices can be heard
without fear.
This research is part of a larger study that explores how adolescents engage with media, including their use of
both digital and non-digital tools, their perceptions of media creation and consumption, their collaboration with
others, their media production and sharing practices, and their confidence in recognizing false information.
This research does not aim to simply rehash the well-documented ways in which media, both overtly and
subtly, reinforces gender stereotypes - casting girls and women in domestic, nurturing, or sexualized roles
while portraying men as dominant, aggressive, or inherently successful. Instead, the goal of this paper is to
share the stories of five adolescent girls who, through media deconstruction activities, developed the ability to
recognize and interpret symbolic meanings in media, particularly in the advertisements presented to them. In
this study, we sought to answer the question: How does the process of media deconstruction influence
students’ critical understanding of gender representation in media content?
The conversations around ads from Pantene Labels against women ad, 2019 Volkswagen ad, Philadelphia
cream cheese, Nike, LEGO, Toys R Us, and CBeebies demonstrate how students learned to parse both explicit
and implicit meanings, draw connections to broader societal messages (like gender norms), and understand the
implications of representation and omission in media.
Feminist Media Theory
This study is grounded in Feminist Media Theory, which provides a critical lens for examining how media
constructs, reinforces, and sometimes resists gendered power relations. At its foundation, feminist media
theory critiques the symbolic annihilation of women in media (Tuchman, 1978), where women’s voices, roles,
and stories are trivialized, narrowly represented, or excluded altogether. Media texts often reproduce binary
portrayals of women as passive, nurturing, or sexualized, and men as dominant, ambitious, or authoritative
(Krijnen, 2020). Such portrayals carry ideological weight, shaping how young audiences understand gender
roles, identity, and possibilities for their futures.
In the context of this study, feminist media theory frames how adolescent girls interpret gendered
representations in advertising. It highlights both the persistence of unequal power relations in media and the
potential for resistant readings. For example, participants in this study critiqued the Volkswagen commercial
for showing men in adventurous roles and women in passive caregiving roles, reflecting a feminist awareness
of exclusion and inequality in representation. At the same time, their engagement with Nike’s “Who said
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WOMAN was not meant to fly” ad illustrates feminist theory’s recognition of resistant texts that challenge
historical gender constraints and reposition women in aspirational roles.
By situating the study in feminist media theory, the analysis underscores how media deconstruction becomes
both a critical and emancipatory practice. Through guided reflection and dialogue, participants were able to
identify double standards, question stereotypes, and articulate alternative narratives. In doing so, they enacted
what feminist scholars describe as developing media agency, which is the ability to resist dominant ideologies
and imagine more equitable representations (Gill, 2008; Kellner & Share, 2007). This framework therefore not
only supports the study’s focus on critical media literacy but also aligns with its broader educational goal of
fostering gender equity and empowering young people to become critical, reflective media consumers.
What did we do in the Media Creation Bootcamp?
The participants developed media projects that reflected their personal interests and addressed broader societal
issues such as climate change, community support, reading, gaming, and entrepreneurship. At the start of the
camp, the facilitators used students' prior knowledge to introduce the concept of misinformation. Through
interactive games like Fake It to Make It and Lamboozled, students learned how false information is created,
spread, and detected.
Simultaneously, participants began designing infographics with Canva, selecting topics of interest, developing
narratives, and identifying relevant resources. They used tools WeVideo, and Google Sites to create engaging
media, including commercials. Collaboration was key because students brainstormed, gave peer feedback, and
sometimes worked in pairs, like two students who co-created a Google Site.
There were three primary phases in the camp:
Play with Media (Weeks 1–2): Students used Canva to explore and express their interests through low-stakes
creation of images, videos, and interactive elements. They experimented with design templates, clickable
features, and creative visuals, aiming to engage viewers without pressure.
Designing TV Commercials (Week 3): This phase focused on constructing and deconstructing ads (media
content). Students storyboarded their concepts, filmed footage, and edited content using Canva and WeVideo.
We demonstrated the commercial-making process to guide students through each step: planning, scripting,
filming, and editing.
Final Media Project (Weeks 4–6): Students synthesized their previous work into a cohesive final project.
They refined visuals, aligned audio and message, and ensured their media conveyed a compelling story.
Throughout, students received structured instructions via videos and discussions covering media's role in
society, internet search strategies, misinformation, and media construction and deconstruction. This structured,
hands-on approach empowered students to build digital literacy skills, think critically about media, and
creatively express their ideas through technology.
Process of Deconstruction of Media.
We focused on helping participants develop a deeper understanding of the intended messages and purposes
behind media content, particularly through constructing and deconstructing media activities. Participants
learned to identify underlying themes, persuasive techniques, and hidden agendas in media messages, with a
specific emphasis on how these relate to concepts of gender stereotypes. After discussing the meaning of
media deconstruction and demonstrating the related skills through examples, we asked participants to apply
what they had learned by deconstructing a TV commercial. They watched five TV commercials and used the
same prompts to deconstruct them. Students answered questions about how media deconstruction can help
identify false information in media.
Some of the prompts include who’s responsible for the ad. (Look for the logo, which is the symbol
representing the brand. When you find it, ask yourself what you know about the brand). Do you like it? Does it
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have a good reputation? Type of media? What is the ad saying? (Remember to look at more than words.
Everything in an ad is a message to you: the pictures, the colors, the feel and the words). What does the ad
want me to do? How are they trying to get your attention? Do you think everybody, e.g., boys; girls; women;
men; rich; poor; not so rich, not so poor, will take this ad the same way? Who do you think this ad is for? Who
is being targeted? How do you come to this conclusion? What do you see that makes you think that? Who's
represented in the message? And who's missing? e.g., their age, ethnicity, class, profession, interests, etc. What
emotions should we evoke? What’s our message, and why?
Figure 1 & 2
Some TV Commercials the Participants Deconstructed
Figure 3
Process of Deconstruction of Media.
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The "Today We Play" commercial by Toys R Us showed modern children's lives filled with too much stress
and overly structured schedules. It aimed to position Toys R Us stores as spaces where kids could freely play
and explore without the constraints of structured activities and sports that have become overly competitive.
Meanwhile, the LEGO "Shake Up Imagination" commercial showed unsuspecting children being given
unbranded, wrapped presents and were asked to guess the contents. Upon shaking the boxes and hearing the
sound, they began to imagine everything they could build, illustrating how LEGO encourages creativity and
imagination before the box is even opened. The CBeebies commercial, designed to celebrate diversity,
inclusiveness, and kindness, showcased a real pair of friends who, despite their differences, struggled to point
them out, highlighting the idea that children view differences differently compared to adults. Pantene ‘Labels
Against Women’ Digital Ad, is an advertisement that addresses the issue of gender-based double standards in
professional settings. It highlights how identical behaviors are often perceived differently depending on
whether a man or a woman exhibits them. In 2019, a Volkswagen eGolf advertisement depicted a series of
scenes showing men in active and adventurous roles: two male astronauts floating in space, a male para-athlete
with a prosthetic leg performing a long jump, and a man camping on a cliffside. In contrast, the women
featured were portrayed in more passive roles, such as one sleeping in the tent during the cliffside scene and
another sitting on a bench next to a pram, observing the eGolf as it drove by. The commercial concluded with
the slogan, “When we learn to adapt, we can achieve anything.”. Lastly, a 2019 Philadelphia cream cheese
commercial featured two men distracted by a conveyor belt of food, accidentally placing their babies on it. The
babies then rolled away on the belt, and the dads hurried to retrieve them. The ad ended with a tagline about
how Philadelphia is “so delicious, it's easy to get distracted.”
METHODOLOGY
Research method and participants
This study is a qualitative case study to examine how five girls in middle school use media deconstruction
activities to gain critical understanding of gender representation in media content. The study's relatively small
sample size, led to a preference for qualitative case study investigation. This choice allowed for a more in-
depth exploration of middle schoolers' personal and collective experiences in making meaning of gendered
media. The selection of participants was contingent upon their expressed interest in media creation and using a
convenience sampling technique. To ensure safety and confidentiality, Institutional Review Board policies
from Clemson University were followed, and pseudonyms were used, including but not limited to contacting
participants and not collecting data until receiving IRB approval. The study was voluntary, and participants
had the right to opt-out at any time without repercussions. We protected the study participants' privacy and
confidentiality by utilizing pseudonyms. Anonymity was linked to confidentiality, so those participants' names
and other distinctive identifiers were kept private.
Data instruments and collection
Observation Protocol (In-Person and Swivl)
As part of this project, we observed students for approximately 60 minutes each day of the camp as they
created media and collaborated with their peers. The observation protocol was adapted from the study by
Arastoopour Irgens et al. (2022) to better understand how participants engaged with various camp activities.
We used Swivl for video observation. During these sessions, we focused on participants’ conversations,
collaboration styles, sources of support, media creation and sharing, and individual task performance.
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The direct observations primarily reflect the researchers’ perspectives on the behaviors exhibited by middle
school students. We recorded the types of activities students engaged in, along with timestamps. Instances of
errors or misunderstandings during tasks were noted. Our observations included participants' interactions,
levels of interest, body language, and questions, especially those related to media deconstruction.
Semi-Structured Interviews
We conducted 20-minute, individual semi-structured interviews (Rabionet, 2011) with participants after the
camp to explore their experiences with media deconstruction. These interviews were designed to provide space
for students to reflect on and articulate their perspectives.
Interview questions covered several topics, including:
Their overall thoughts on the camp experience
Their understanding of media deconstruction
Whether any media content made them feel uncomfortable or confused
Their reactions to the videos
Why it is important to question media content
Any stereotypes noticed and what would they change
Qualitative Analysis
We used inductive, and open coding approaches to obtain our codes directly from the data (Creswell & Clark,
2018). We approached inductive and open coding without preconceived codes or themes. Instead, we allowed
the codes to emerge from the data itself as patterns and themes became apparent during the analysis. This
inductive and open coding method was applied to address the research question.
By employing these approaches, we explored the participants' responses and narratives. This was achieved by
examining their responses from various data sources, which allowed me to capture the subtleties and nuances
that might have gone unnoticed had we used a rigid analysis approach. For instance, utilizing video
observation afforded me the opportunity to witness every aspect of the participants' actions and conversations
during the media deconstruction process. This included moments of frustration and elation, providing valuable
context to their media creation process. As we read through the data, we wrote short memos to improve codes,
identify emergent codes, and revise the code book. During the coding process, equal attention was given to
each data item to identify interesting aspects of the data relevant to answering the research question (Braun &
Clarke, 2006).
To answer the RQ, we conducted open coding to explore what the participants see and respond to what they
watch in the TV commercials as regards to gender stereotypes. Some of the codes that stood out to me include:
“Persuasive vs. Pushy” labeling, “We need to ask more questions when we see ads”, “Gender-Inclusive Play
and Imagination”, “Who said woman was not meant to fly?” We took a more granular approach and the more
we reread and dug more into the data the more we understand the nuanced meanings the girls have towards
gendered media. This iterative coding process generated a set of codes and themes. Throughout this iterative
coding process, we continually collapsed some codes and expanded others to refine the analysis further. Some
of the categories that emerged include “Freedom to Be Oneself” and “Emotional Reactions to Portrayals.”
Whenever a new code emerged, we updated the code book and recoded all previous data to ensure consistency
in the analysis; for instance, the category “Emotional Reactions to Portrayals” emerged from a deeper analysis
of comments about challenging gender stereotypes in TV Commercials.
We utilized MAXQDA to analyze our data, using features like text retrieval to find relevant data related to
specific codes and creating memos and annotations to record interpretations and reflections. It assisted in
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organizing, coding, and analyzing the data (text, audio, and video). A code frequency analysis helped identify
prominent themes for inclusion. Thematic analysis was then employed to identify common patterns and
themes in the data, providing insights into participants' perspectives and experiences. This process enabled me
to first organize the codes into categories and then further condense them into meaningful themes, facilitating a
concise and interpretable presentation of findings. To ensure accuracy, the data set and derived themes were
carefully examined, and the themes were verified to accurately represent the data. The qualitative findings are
presented through descriptions, themes, and perspectives, supported by evidence such as quotes, multiple
perspectives, and rich descriptions (Table 1).
Table 1 Codes, Categories and Themes Exemplars
Codes Categories Theme
“Made me feel seen… but also sad”
“Girls: be perfect. Boys: laugh it off”
“Men can’t handle watching their own kids”
Emotional Reactions
to Portrayals
Challenging Gender
Stereotypes in TV
Commercials
“Persuasive vs. Pushy” labeling
“Who said woman was not meant to fly?”
“We need to ask more questions when we see ads”
Challenging Gender
Norms
“It’s okay to do what you like…”
“Anyone can build anything…”
“They were so different, but they didn’t care”
Freedom to Be
Oneself
Promoting Freedom of
Expression
“Playing is for everyone”
“Acceptance was natural”
“Girls don’t have to play quiet games…”
Gender-Inclusive
Play and Imagination
FINDINGS
Theme 1: Challenging Gender Stereotypes in TV Commercials
The TV commercials the participants deconstructed include that of Pantene Labels Against Women ad, 2019
Volkswagen ad, Philadelphia cream cheese, Nike, LEGO, Toys R Us, and CBeebies. The Nike advertisement
features a pair of Nike Air sneakers. The tagline reads, “Who said woman was not meant to fly.”
Figure 4 Nike Commercial
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The participants engaged in the deconstruction of a Nike Advertisement (See Figure 4). Some of the
conversations that ensue include:
Researcher: What does the advert tell you?
Sidney: Who said women woman (pointing to the deliberate use of WOMAN) was not meant to fly, so it is
saying something more than what is written here
Tanya: Like, mistreatment for women, maybe.
Sidney: I think it's saying like they don't support the mistreatment of women, like the message should go
beyond the stereotypes by flying.
Researcher: What does this ad want you to do?
Tanya: Buy shoes from Nike. Okay.
Sidney: Make us to think that we are buying more than a shoe, like empowering women?
Researcher: Who is targeted?
Asbury: WOMAN Oh, oh women are the target audience. I came to the conclusion because this was in the
words.
Asbury: It says WOMAN. Like when MAN landed on the moon? Like, it's not one man; it was referring to
everyone. This advert, too, is addressing every single woman.
Sidney: Yeah, that's what I was going to say. I was referring to how the news of the moon landing was
conveyed “Man lands on the Moon,” so the Advert says WOMAN, but it’s referring to every single woman.
Tanya: But it's grammatically correct; it means the whole, entire gender of every single woman. It just sounds
odd.
Asbury: It's not saying that a 12-year-old girl with blonde hair and green eyes couldn't fly. Right?
Researcher: How did they try to get your attention?
Tanya: I think there's two ways they're trying to get your attention I think like they're trying to also advertise
shoes, but also advertise women, not advertising for women.
In this example of media deconstruction, the participants discussed how they recognize that media often carries
a deeper or underlying meaning. The participants suggested the advertisement speaks to the issue of
mistreatment of women and confronts gender stereotypes. They perceive the ad as a means of empowering
women and championing gender equality. They also identify women as the primary target audience, drawing
this conclusion from the wording and overall message of the advertisement. The students also engage in a
discussion about the linguistic choice in the ad, specifically the use of “woman.” While acknowledging its
grammatical correctness, they find it peculiar in the context. They emphasize how it can influence perceptions
of gender and advocate for equality, while also serving as a marketing tool for shoes.
Participants extended these conversations when discussing Pantene’s “Labels Against Women” ad (See Figure
5). They identified the ad’s message about gender-based double standards in professional behavior—how
women are labeled as “bossy” for actions that earn men praise as “leaders.” Some of the conversations that
ensue include:
Tanya: Who do you think the ad is targeting?
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Asbury: I think it’s mostly for women and girls like us. But also maybe for guys .. to help them see the
unfairness. Like, some of them might not even realize it’s happening.
Jade: Yeah, I agree. I came to that conclusion because of the way it showed both men and women..but it
focused on how the women were labeled. Like the man was “persuasive,” but the woman was “pushy.”
Sidney: Exactly. And as a girl, it kind of makes me feel seen… but also sad. Like, I don’t want to grow up in a
world where I have to act “less” just to be accepted.
Jade: Me too. But it also made me feel stronger … like we can notice these things now, talk about them, and
not let them define us.
Tanya: Facts. I think if more people watched that ad, they’d start paying attention to how they speak to girls
and what they expect from us. I’m glad we watched it.
Figure 5 Pantene’s “Labels Against Women” ad
Tanya and Jade expressed frustration but also a sense of empowerment. They shared personal experiences of
being unfairly labeled in school, using these reflections to deepen their understanding of the ad’s impact. They
emphasized that media like this can spark awareness and inspire girls to resist stereotypes.
When analyzing the Volkswagen commercial (See Figure 6), the girls critiqued how the ad portrayed men in
adventurous roles (astronauts, athletes), while women were shown in passive caregiving roles (e.g., sitting with
a pram). They express frustration at how the ad reinforces traditional gender stereotypes, making them feel that
society still expects girls to stay in the background while boys are encouraged to be bold and ambitious.
Asbury remarks, “It kind of annoyed me. Like, what is that supposed to say? That boys get to be astronauts
and do cool stuff, and girls are just... watching babies?” Sidney supports this by saying, “Right? It felt like they
were showing men being active and brave, and the women were just quiet and passive. As a girl, it makes me
feel like society expects us to sit on the sidelines.” They analyze visual techniques used in the ad. Jade
observes:
“I think they were trying to get our attention by showing big, dramatic scenes…. astronauts, cliff climbing,
sports. That stuff pulls people in. But if you notice, all those ‘wow’ moments are with men. The woman just
sits quietly next to a stroller. That’s the moment that sticks out to me.”
Here, the students are applying their understanding of how visual emphasis in advertisements can reinforce
gender hierarchies, even subtly. Tanya connects this to the ad’s target audience:
“That’s how I came to the conclusion that they were targeting men more. Like, ‘Hey, guys, this electric car is
powerful and cool…just like you!’ Meanwhile, we’re supposed to… relate to a woman sitting on a bench?”
Her analysis reflects on how advertising shapes and limits identity through exclusion and narrow portrayals.
Importantly, Asbury also gestures toward a hopeful shift in public awareness: “And the sad thing is, it’s not
just this ad. It’s everywhere. But seeing this ad banned makes me feel like maybe people are starting to notice.
Like, ‘Hey, this isn’t okay.’” This moment signals a sense of empowerment, suggesting that calling out
problematic representations can lead to social change.
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Figure 62019 Volkswagen ad
The Philadelphia cream cheese commercial (See Figure 7) offered a more complex reaction. While participants
initially found it humorous, they quickly reflected on its deeper message that men are often depicted as
carefree and forgiven for parenting mistakes, while women would be criticized for similar behavior. The
students identify and critique the portrayal of gender in the cream cheese commercial. Sidney observes, “Okay,
that commercial was kinda funny… but also kinda annoying? Like, why do the dads have to be so clueless?”
This moment initiates a group discussion about how media often uses humor to reinforce outdated stereotypes.
Jade adds, “Right?! It’s like they’re saying, ‘Men can’t handle watching their own kids.’ That wouldn’t be
funny if it was a mom, though.” The students try to deconstruct the ad's intent and tactics. Jade prompts,
“Let’s try breaking it down like we learned in media class. What does the ad want us to do?” Ava replies, “Buy
cream cheese, obviously. They’re using humor to make the brand memorable. Like, ‘Haha, silly dads! But
wow, that cream cheese looks good.’” Sidney expands on the technique: “They’re trying to get our attention
with that whole unexpected twist—like, ‘Whoa! Did he really forget his baby?’ It’s kinda shocking, so it sticks
with you.” This exchange demonstrates how students are beginning to recognize the ways advertisers use
stereotypes and humor to manipulate viewer emotions and consumer behavior.
Importantly, the students do not stop at identifying techniques, they consider the deeper social implications.
Ava reflects, “But who are they targeting? It’s probably adults who have families, right? Especially men—
they’re trying to make dads feel like it’s okay to mess up a little, as long as you have snacks.” This insight
underscores how media can subtly shape norms around parenting and gendered expectations. Eventually, the
emotional impact of these portrayals becomes increasingly evident. Tanya notes:
“Honestly, as a girl, I feel like this stuff just builds up over time. Like we keep seeing things where women are
serious and responsible, and men are goofy and forgiven for it. That gets tiring.”
Ava reiterates: “It’s like the message is, ‘Girls: be perfect. Boys: it’s okay to mess up, just laugh it off.’ That
sticks in your head.” Finally, Sidney challenges her peers to practice active inquiry when consuming media:
“I think we need to ask more questions when we see ads. Like, What do I think of it as a girl? Do I feel seen?
Or am I just supposed to laugh at something that actually makes me uncomfortable?”
Figure 7 The Philadelphia cream cheese commercial
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Throughout these open discussions, participants questioned the normalization of gender roles, reflected on how
media representations connect to their own experiences, and expressed a desire for greater fairness and
representation.
Theme 2: Promoting Freedom of Expression
In addition to challenging gender stereotypes, participants also engaged with media that promoted the freedom
to be oneself, especially in the context of childhood play and friendships. Through deconstructing commercials
from LEGO, Toys R Us, and CBeebies, they reflected on how these media pieces challenge restrictive norms
and celebrate a sense of belonging.
The LEGO “Shake Up Imagination” commercial encouraged children to use their creativity and imagine
without boundaries. Participants responded positively to the idea that toys are not limited by gender
expectations. Asbury observed that “anyone can build anything with their imagination, no matter if you're a
boy or a girl,” while Sidney noted that the commercial pushes back against the pressure for children to act a
certain way based on their gender. Sidney also mentioned, “Well, they were more than just toys. They were
trying to say something about how kids are pressured to act a certain way because of their gender.” The
participants discuss how the LEGO Commercial does not prescribe any specific roles or limitations based on
gender. By showing children engaging in imaginative play without predetermined gender roles, it challenges
the idea that certain toys are meant for boys or girls only. Tanya echoed this idea by suggesting the ad aimed to
change how society thinks about play: “Like, it's okay for boys to play with ‘girl’ toys and vice versa.”
Similarly, the Toys R Us “Today We Play” commercial resonated with participants by depicting the structured
and stressful lives of modern children and proposing unstructured play as a remedy. From observing the
participants’ discussion and response to the guiding questions, they interpreted the commercial as creating a
space where children can express themselves freely, regardless of gender roles. Sidney reflected, “I liked how
the commercial showed kids being all serious at first, like they were stuck doing boring adult stuff. But then
they got to just be kids and have fun. That felt real.” Asbury appreciated the autonomy to be themselves
without restriction, saying, It’s cool how the ad didn’t say, ‘boys do this’ and ‘girls do that.’ Everyone just got
to play however they wanted.” Tanya emphasized that, “It didn’t matter if you were a girl or a boy, you could
build stuff, run around, pretend, whatever. It showed that playing is for everyone.” By observing and
discussing these commercials, students began to recognize how media shapes their perceptions of what it
means to be a boy or a girl, and how those roles can be questioned, subverted, or affirmed. Sidney made a
good point about this, saying, “It kind of reminded me that it’s okay to do what you like, even if it’s not what
people expect you to do. Like, girls don’t always have to play quiet games and boys don’t have to be super
wild.”
The CBeebies commercial, designed to celebrate diversity and kindness, was also highly impactful. It featured
two friends who, despite looking different, could not identify their differences. Tanya shared during a
discussion, “I liked the one with the two friends in the CBeebies commercial. They were so different, but they
didn’t care.” Asbury added, “And maybe they want us to realize that we should be more accepting of our
differences, just like those friends in the CBeebies commercial.” Ava connected the message to a broader
social lesson, saying, “Yeah, I think I get it now, just like the Nike advert. It's like they’re trying to break those
rules that say what we can and can’t do.” The idea that both commercials pushed back against restrictive
norms helped students see that media can also be used to challenge the status quo, not just reinforce it. We
noted in the in-person and video observations recordings that Asbury said, “I think it shows that people can be
friends even if they don’t look the same or act the same. That’s what made it feel good to watch.” Sidney
chimed in, “It made me think about how we sometimes judge people just because they’re different. But in that
ad, the kids didn’t even notice, they were just happy being together.” The participants appreciated how the ad
modeled a world where acceptance was natural and differences were embraced, not highlighted or ridiculed.
This helped them reflect on their own experiences and beliefs, and recognize how media can be a tool for
inclusion and social change
Overall, the discussions show that young people are attuned not only to stereotypes but also to progressive
interpretations that foster belonging, imagination, and freedom. They welcomed commercials that depict
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children as imaginative, open-minded, and accepting, and saw such representations as a model for a more
equitable society.
DISCUSSION
Our discussion builds on the girls' insights from deconstructing five different commercials. Rather than
imposing interpretations, we encouraged them to express their views. The conversations we observed and
interviews we conducted revealed that critical media literacy remains a powerful tool for helping young people
analyze media content, particularly in ways that support the promotion of gender equity in society. Two major
themes emerged: challenging gender stereotypes and promoting freedom of expression. These themes are
illuminated when viewed through the lens of Feminist Media Theory, which argues that representation in
media is inseparable from systems of power and gendered ideology.
This study explores how five middle school students, through conversations, interactions, and guided critiques
of selected TV commercials, engaged in learning and meaning-making around how media can contribute to the
repression of girls and women in society. Through structured prompting and questioning, the participants could
recognize, interrogate, and challenge gender stereotypes embedded in media advertisements. This process
aligns with previous research highlighting the value of critical engagement with media texts in fostering
students' socio-political awareness and media agency (Kellner & Share, 2007; Mihailidis, P. & S. Viotty
(2017).
Challenging Gender Stereotypes in TV Commercials
Participants’ deconstruction of the Nike advertisement revealed an engagement with the ad’s subtext,
particularly its challenge to traditional gender narratives. The slogan “Who said WOMAN was not meant to
fly” prompted discussions about visibility, empowerment, and linguistic representation. Through a feminist
media lens, this engagement highlights how advertisements can symbolically resist symbolic annihilation
(Tuchman, 1978) by reclaiming women’s visibility in cultural discourse. The girls decoded the message as
promoting women’s autonomy and ambition, resisting historic gender constraints (Djerf-Pierre & Edström,
2020). Their focus on the capitalization of “WOMAN” demonstrates how language can function as a tool of
empowerment and resistance, a key tenet of feminist media analysis. By comparing the slogan to the historical
phrase “Man lands on the Moon,” participants recognized how women have often been excluded from
dominant narratives and how corrective representation can reclaim space for them.
The participants’ conversations about the Pantene “Labels Against Women” ad revealed a nuanced awareness
of gendered double standards. They noted how identical behaviors were framed positively for men
(“persuasive”) and negatively for women (“pushy”), echoing feminist critiques of unequal symbolic value
attached to gendered behaviors. Their emotional responses, feeling both “seen” and saddened, demonstrate
what feminist media theorists describe as the dual effect of representation: simultaneously validating lived
experiences and exposing the persistence of inequality (Gill, 2008). This ability to connect media critique to
their personal identities underscores the feminist principle that media is never neutral but deeply tied to
structures of power.
The Volkswagen ad analysis illustrated the participants’ frustration with women’s continued confinement to
passive, caregiving roles while men were depicted in adventurous, heroic contexts. From a feminist
perspective, this reflects the ongoing reinforcement of patriarchal hierarchies, in which women are rendered
subordinate or absent in aspirational spaces. Their recognition of the emotional toll of repeated exposure to
such portrayals affirms feminist arguments about how media functions as an ideological apparatus, shaping
identity formation and limiting perceived opportunities (Carlsson & Weibull, 2018; Ward & Grower, 2020).
Participants’ reactions to the Philadelphia cream cheese commercial further demonstrate how humor operates
as a carrier of inequality. By critiquing the ad’s portrayal of fathers as “clueless but forgiven,” the girls
exposed how humor normalizes unequal gender expectations, allowing men more leniency while demanding
perfection from women.
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This aligns with feminist critiques of advertising’s reliance on seemingly light portrayals to disguise deeper
inequities (Jhally, 1990). Their statement, “girls: be perfect. boys: it’s okay to mess up,” articulates a feminist
reading of how media trivializes women’s labor and responsibility while excusing men’s failures, reinforcing
systemic inequity.
Across these discussions, the participants moved from passive viewing to what feminist media theory
describes as resistant readings, actively questioning portrayals, identifying double standards, and reasserting
their own interpretive power. Sidney’s reflection, “we need to ask more questions when we see ads,” illustrates
the development of media agency, a core feminist objective: to empower marginalized groups to critically
interrogate and resist dominant ideologies.
Promoting Freedom of Expression through Play and Identity
Beyond critiquing stereotypes, participants also embraced commercials that modeled inclusivity and freedom
of identity, aligning with feminist calls for alternative, counter-hegemonic media narratives. The LEGO
“Shake Up Imagination” ad, for example, was praised for avoiding gendered toy assignments and instead
celebrating creativity without boundaries. Students’ comments such as “anyone can build anything” highlight a
feminist reimagining of childhood play as a site of resistance against restrictive norms. This affirms feminist
media theory’s recognition that representation can function as a site of empowerment by opening spaces for
fluid and inclusive identities (Comber & Nixon, 2008; Coyne et al., 2016).
Similarly, the Toys R Us “Today We Play” commercial resonated with participants by depicting a stark
contrast between rigid adult expectations and the liberating nature of play. Feminist theory reminds us that
such portrayals are powerful because they validate children’s experiences and challenge the social scripts that
define gendered behavior (Marsh, 2010). Participants’ appreciation for ads that showed all children playing
freely, without division into “boys’” and “girls’” activities, echoes feminist advocacy for dismantling artificial
boundaries in identity formation.
The CBeebies commercial was valued for its affirmation of diversity and difference. Feminist media scholars
argue that inclusive portrayals not only resist marginalization but also foster a sense of belonging and
collective empowerment (Rideout, 2014). Participants’ reflections, that differences “didn’t matter” and
friendship prevailed, demonstrate how feminist-aligned media can promote solidarity and self-acceptance.
Putting all these together, these commercials functioned as resistant texts, aligning with feminist media
theory’s recognition of media as a contested site where oppressive ideologies can be disrupted and alternatives
imagined. By responding positively to ads that celebrated diversity and inclusivity, the girls not only identified
what they reject in media but also what they aspire to see, models of equity, play, and self-expression.
Implication for Practice and Conclusion
These findings suggest that when provided with a critical framework and supportive learning environment,
young people can thoughtfully engage with media, detect underlying ideologies, and articulate their own
positions. Situating this work within Feminist Media Theory further highlights media deconstruction as an
emancipatory practice: students were not only decoding advertisements but also developing interpretive power
to resist symbolic annihilation, challenge double standards, and articulate more inclusive narratives.
The pedagogical implications extend beyond this single study. The paper demonstrates that curriculum
integration of feminist-informed media literacy, particularly in middle school digital literacy programs, can
provide students with critical tools during a formative stage of identity development. Embedding such
practices across curricula would support broader efforts to align with UNESCO’s (2022) framework on gender
and media, which calls for systemic interventions that dismantle stereotypes and promote equitable
participation in digital culture. By connecting participants’ reflections to these global frameworks, we
underscore how classroom-based interventions contribute to international gender-equity goals.
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To enhance theoretical clarity, this work also points toward a conceptual model of “media deconstruction and
empowerment.” Such a model would depict the iterative process observed here: (1) exposure to media
messages, (2) guided deconstruction of underlying ideologies, (3) recognition of stereotypes and inequities,
and (4) empowerment through resistant readings and alternative meaning-making. Framing findings within
such a model helps illustrate how adolescent girls move from passive consumers to active interpreters and
potential agents of change.
Finally, from a scholarly standpoint, improving the explanatory clarity of figures, tightening redundancies in
descriptions, and linking findings more explicitly to broader gender-equity policies in education will elevate
this study’s contribution. By weaving together feminist media theory, participant voices, and policy
frameworks, the paper positions itself as both a pedagogical intervention and a theoretical contribution to
debates about gender, media, and adolescent empowerment.
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