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Augmented Reality Integration in Mathematics Education:
Implications for Enhancing Students' Conceptual Knowledge
Siti Salizma Salleh, Roslinda Rosli*, Zamri Mahamod
Faculty of Education, The National University of Malaysia,43650 Bandar Baru Bangi, Selangor,
Malaysia
*Corresponding Author
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000227
Received: 10 October 2025; Accepted: 16 October 2025; Published: 08 November 2025
ABSTRACT
Augmented Reality (AR) has been recognized as a powerful tool for facilitating classroom instruction. This
concept paper discussed the significance of integrating AR in mathematics teaching and learning to enhance
students' conceptual understanding. Conceptual knowledge in mathematics is essential for comprehending the
relationships among facts, principles, and procedures that support logical reasoning and problem-solving.
However, Malaysian students' performance in mathematics has shown a concerning trend, partly due to
traditional teaching approaches and low student interest. AR integration is viewed as an innovative approach
that can enhance learning by making it more interactive, visual, and student-centered. This paper outlines the
objectives, issues, challenges, and implications of AR used in mathematics education, and proposes strategies
for effective implementation. Overall, AR has the potential to transform mathematics education, making it more
relevant to the demands of 21st-century learning.
Keywords: Augmented Reality (AR), conceptual understanding, Mathematics, educational
technology, 21
st
-
Century Learning.
INTRODUCTION
Mathematics is a branch of knowledge that develops logical and systematic thinking in problem-solving.
However, mathematics education is often perceived as a complex subject because it not only requires high
cognitive skills but also involves dynamic interactions between students' internal attributes, the physical learning
environment, and sociocultural influences that shape students' experiences and understanding of the subject (Hui
& Rosli, 2021). Students often face challenges in grasping mathematical conceptual knowledge, which can lead
to a decline in interest in learning mathematics. The failure to grasp both conceptual and procedural knowledge
contributes to negative attitudes among students, including phobias, anxiety, fear, and low self-confidence in
mathematics learning.
Mathematical conceptual knowledge encompasses a comprehensive understanding of the relationships that link
facts, procedures, and principles. It enables learners to explain why a method is used rather than merely knowing
how to perform calculations with formulas. Mastery of conceptual knowledge plays a significant role in
strengthening procedural knowledge and subsequently enhances students' ability to solve mathematical problems
flexibly, particularly in algebra (Abdullah, 2020). Other topics that can be challenging for students to understand
include fractions, ratios and proportions, geometry, volume and surface area, coordinates, statistics, and
probability.
Teaching and learning (T&L) through technology is an important approach in implementing 21
st
-century
learning. The integration of technology in the teaching and learning process fosters students' critical, creative,
and innovative thinking, as well as digital literacy. Through this integration, student-centered and collaborative
learning can be implemented more effectively in mathematics classrooms. Active student involvement in
collaborative learning can build collective knowledge construction and promote students' cognitive and social
development. As a result, it can improve students' mathematical conceptual knowledge. AR technology is a
branch of technology that is increasingly used in education. AR is a technology that applies virtual information
to the physical world in three dimensions, which produces an interactive and comprehensive experience for
users. (Bakim & Abdul Hanid, 2024).
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Integrating augmented reality (AR) into mathematics education transforms the learning process into an active,
student-centered experience. AR facilitates the development of mathematical conceptual knowledge through
interactive engagement and peer collaboration. It serves as an effective pedagogical tool that enhances
understanding by allowing students to manipulate and explore three-dimensional geometric shapes. This
interactive approach aids in comprehending fundamental concepts such as area, perimeter, and volume.
Furthermore, the use of AR has been shown to increase students' interest and achievement in spatial reasoning
and related mathematical domains. Consequently, the incorporation of AR in mathematics instruction is
considered a promising strategy to bridge the gap between abstract mathematical concepts and students' tangible
understanding, utilizing visual and experiential learning modalities.
DEFINITION
Mathematics
Al-Farabi translated the original Greek term ta mathēmata, which means “something that can be learned” and at
the same time "something that can be taught" (Azlan, 2019). Mathematics serves as a universal language to
explain real-world phenomena and forms an essential foundation in various fields, including science, technology,
engineering, economics, and education. Mathematics is a discipline that trains individuals to think logically
through proof processes, using its own unique language to convey concepts within (Ahmad Sabri & Othman,
2014). Mathematics cultivates logical thinking through reasoning, symbolic representation, and the systematic
study of structures, patterns, numbers, shapes, space, and change. This is achieved through logical reasoning,
abstraction, and symbolic modelling.
Mathematical Conceptual Knowledge
Mathematical conceptual knowledge involves a comprehensive grasp of concepts, principles, and the
relationships between mathematical ideas. It enables teachers to deliver effective teaching and to integrate
various concepts in a more meaningful way (Abdullah, 2020).
Augmented Reality
Augmented Reality (AR) is a technology that combines real and virtual elements interactively in a learning
environment, aiming to enhance focus, conceptual understanding, and student motivation towards a subject. AR
overlays virtual information onto the physical world in three-dimensional form, creating immersive and
interactive experiences for users (Bakim & Abdul Hanid, 2024). Figure 1 illustrates the physical reality, digital
reality, and their integration (phygital) as the foundation for mixed reality technologies, such as AR (Augmented
Reality) and VR (Virtual Reality). The physical represents real-world elements, the digital refers to virtual
entities, while the phygital integrates both dimensions through technology. This integration gives rise to Mixed
Reality (MR), which enables immersive experiences that seamlessly merge real and virtual interactions.
Figure 1 The diagram of Augmented Reality (AR). Source: Wadah ICT UKM, 2025
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The Importance of Mathematics Education in Life
Mathematics education is a crucial element in developing the ability to think logically, analyze information, and
solve problems systematically. Mathematics is not only symbolic, but is a reality built through rational thinking
to understand the structure and phenomena of nature (Azlan, 2019). Mathematics plays a crucial role in human
daily life, helping to develop essential skills such as numeracy, statistical understanding, and financial
management, among others. Students realize the importance of mastering mathematics in other fields, such as
management, and in making decisions based on data. (Ahmad Sabri & Othman, 2014). Therefore, mastering
mathematical concepts is crucial for producing competitive individuals in the era of the Fourth Industrial
Revolution (IR 4.0).
Conceptual Teaching and Learning of Mathematics
Conceptual teaching and learning focus on a deep understanding of concepts, as well as the relationships between
mathematical ideas and their applications in real-world contexts. This approach differed from procedural
teaching, which emphasizes steps and formulas alone (Abdullah, 2020). In her study, she noted that teachers
need to master conceptual knowledge, enabling them to explain concepts meaningfully and identify student
misconceptions. A balance between procedural and conceptual teaching is necessary to ensure that students can
maintain a long-term understanding (Leong et al., 2020).
Meanwhile, Christopher Jerry and Jamaludin (2021) found that the critical inquiry learning approach can
enhance students' higher-order thinking skills, helping them understand mathematical concepts more deeply.
Therefore, the implementation of conceptual teaching systematically is essential in forming students who can
think logically, analytically, and creatively when solving mathematical problems.
21
st
Century Mathematics Education
The needs of 21st-century education demand changes in the teaching and learning approach to mathematics to
be more interactive and student-centered. The implementation of critical inquiry-based learning can stimulate
students' higher-order thinking, especially in mathematics (Christopher Jerry & Jamaludin, 2021). Meanwhile,
Ramli and Mohd Tajudin (2021) found that innovative teaching strategies can increase student engagement and
encourage self-exploration in problem-solving. This coincides with the elements of 21
st
Century Learning, which
emphasize collaboration, creativity, communication, and critical thinking skills among students. Therefore, the
integration of technology such as AR in mathematics teaching is in line with today's educational aspirations.
Augmented Reality (AR) Technology in Education
Augmented Reality (AR) is a recent innovation that seamlessly blends real and virtual elements in an interactive
manner. Its application in education has demonstrated great potential in enhancing students' interest, motivation,
and academic performance. AR positively impacts students' learning outcomes by creating more contextual and
visual learning environments. (Bakim & Abdul Hanid, 2024). In particular, the use of AR in geometry topics has
successfully increased students' interest and understanding of abstract concepts (Ahmad Farish, 2021). This
proves that AR not only captures students' attention but also strengthens their ability to build deeper mathematical
understanding through immersive learning experiences.
AR Applications in Mathematics Teaching and Learning
Applications such as GeoGebra and Merge Cube are among the AR applications used in mathematics teaching
and learning. These applications can help students understand complex concepts, such as geometric shapes and
spatial structures. A previous study conducted by Salleh & Md Salleh (2020) developed a 3D Math application
based on constructivism and cognitive theory, focusing on 3D geometric shapes. Their findings showed an
increase in student achievement and interest in mathematics. In the context of secondary education, Shahudin
and Mohd. Nordin (2024) found that the use of AR among Form 2 students had a positive effect on the
understanding of 3D geometry concepts, and they were more focused during T&L. The use of AR learning media
among primary school students has significantly improved their knowledge of mathematical concepts (Apriza et
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al., 2024). These findings support the integration of AR as an effective teaching aid in mathematics, particularly
in enhancing students' conceptual knowledge.
Overall, mathematics education plays a crucial role in developing students' ability to think logically, solve
problems, and make rational decisions in everyday life. The integration of technology, such as AR, was seen as
a teaching medium that supports the development of students' conceptual knowledge of mathematics in a more
visual, interactive, and contextual way. In addition, AR also helps increase students' interest and motivation in
mathematics subjects. Teachers need to diversify their mathematics teaching methods by integrating AR, which
will make the classroom environment more conducive to learning. Findings from previous studies (Salleh & Md
Salleh, 2020; Apriza et al., 2024; Shahudin & Mohd Nordin, 2024) provide a solid foundation for exploring the
integration of AR as a teaching approach that can strengthen students' conceptual understanding of mathematics.
This supports the need to design comprehensive technology-based interventions that are relevant to today's
educational needs (Ai & Abdul Karim, 2023).
Issues In Teaching and Learning of Mathematics
Figure 2 shows Malaysia's average achievement scores in Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
(TIMSS) from 1999 to 2023. The findings indicate that the achievement level of Malaysian students in
mathematics exhibits a worrying trend. This report shows that Malaysia was ranked 35
th
out of 42 countries,
with an average score of 411. Malaysia's achievement in TIMSS decreased by 50 points from 461 in 2019, falling
below the international average of 500 points (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2023). This was among the
lowest achievements since the country began participating in TIMSS in 1999.
Figure 2 Malaysia’s Average Achievement Scores in TIMSS – Source: Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2023
Student weaknesses were also identified across various content domains, including Number, Algebra, Geometry,
Measurement, and Data and Probability. The 2024 Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) results for Mathematics
recorded a failure rate of 84,025 students, which was 22%. This number was significant, considering that
Mathematics is a core subject. This situation illustrates the difficulty students face in mastering mathematical
conceptual knowledge as a whole, leading to an increase in the number of students failing mathematics.
Furthermore, another factor contributing to this problem was the traditional and teacher-centered teaching
approach. Mathematics teachers continue to employ traditional teaching methods, such as the use of whiteboards
and textbooks, as teaching aids in the classroom (Ramli & Mohd Tajudin, 2021). This approach was less
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interactive and did not emphasize 21st-century learning, which was needed in the context of today's education.
Mathematics teachers need to shift to teaching methods that are collaborative, student-centered, and utilize
current technology (Christopher Jerry & Jamaludin, 2021). In this regard, integrating AR technology into
mathematics teaching is seen as an innovative approach that aligns with the principles of 21st-century learning,
as it can provide a more active, visual, and contextual learning environment.
The low level of motivation and interest among students in Mathematics also contributes to their weakness in
mastering conceptual knowledge in this subject. Teaching methods that lack engagement and fail to stimulate
students' interest make it difficult for them to grasp mathematical concepts. A study by Salleh and Md Salleh
(2020) showed that the use of 3D mathematics applications can increase students' achievement and interest in
Mathematics. The use of AR can increase students' motivation, active involvement, and understanding of
complex mathematical concepts (Apriza et al., 2024). This finding was supported by Shahudin and Mohd Nordin
(2024), who reported that the use of Augmented Reality (AR)-based applications can increase students' interest
and knowledge in Mathematics. Therefore, integrating AR into mathematics teaching and learning should be
considered a high-impact pedagogical strategy to address declining achievement, pedagogical constraints, and
low student motivation in mathematics education.
The Impact of Ar Integration
The integration of Augmented Reality (AR) in mathematics education has gained increasing attention among
researchers and educators due to its high potential and significant impact on student achievement. The integration
of AR in mathematics learning helps students enhance their conceptual understanding, particularly in grasping
abstract and visual concepts. AR can project 3D objects, such as geometric shapes, graphs, and functions, to
appear realistic and manipulable. For example, students can observe geometric transformations, such as
reflections, rotations, and translations, directly on the screen. They can interact with 3D models by adjusting
their size, viewing angle, or exploring them from multiple perspectives. This process allows students to
strengthen their understanding of challenging mathematical concepts.
The use of AR also helps students build explicit visual representations of structures and relationships in
mathematical topics, such as 2D and 3D geometry, which can be difficult to grasp through conventional teaching
methods (Mohd Fadzil & Mohd Noor, 2023). Visual and interactive learning approaches offer students
opportunities to explore, manipulate, and construct their conceptual understanding independently and in context.
This aligns with the constructivist approach, which emphasizes building new knowledge through learners’ prior
experiences. Such learning experiences enhance memory retention and long-term understanding, while also
indirectly increasing students' interest and motivation in mathematics. Bakim and Abdul Hanid (2024) found
that AR not only enhances academic achievement but also encourages active and meaningful learning,
supporting more profound conceptual mastery. Additionally, AR has the potential to address misconceptions
and misunderstandings in mathematics through interactive and manipulative visual representations. Previous
studies indicated that visual representations within a constructivist framework can help overcome
misconceptions in fractions and significantly improve students' conceptual understanding (Ai & Abdul Karim,
2023).
The integration of AR also benefits teachers by enabling more effective and interactive instruction. AR assists
teachers in explaining abstract mathematical concepts that are often difficult for students to understand, while
stimulating classroom questioning and discussions. This results in continuous two-way interaction between
teachers and students as they explore mathematical concepts. AR can be used as a teaching aid to visually and
progressively explain challenging mathematical concepts, allowing teachers to better holistically assess students'
understanding (Apriza et al., 2024). Beyond diversifying teaching methods, AR also supports 21st-century
Learning and digital-based mathematics education. Technologically literate teachers are better prepared to create
conducive and responsive mathematics learning environments that cater to students from diverse backgrounds.
(Chandrasegaran & Maat, 2023). The integration of AR encourages teachers to design lessons that leverage
technology to improve students' conceptual knowledge while promoting exploration, discussion, and
collaboration. As a result, teachers can become more effective, creative, innovative, and relevant in meeting the
current needs of teaching and learning. Ultimately, mathematics instruction becomes more engaging, impactful,
and transformative.
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Overall, integrating AR in mathematics teaching and learning can build a strong foundation of mathematical
conceptual knowledge through visual and interactive approaches. The use of AR is no longer an option but a
necessity to make mathematics learning more effective, engaging, and aligned with the needs of today's Alpha
generation students.
Challenges Of Using Ar
Although Augmented Reality (AR) offers numerous advantages in improving the understanding and mastery of
mathematical conceptual knowledge, its implementation in the Malaysian education context still faces several
challenges. These challenges can be categorized into three main components of the education system: students,
teachers, and schools, which serve as implementing institutions. The main challenge faced by students is the lack
of readiness in technological access and uneven digital skills. Some students struggle to connect what they see
through AR with actual mathematical concepts. While AR can display 3D geometric shapes, some students may
be more fascinated by the visual effects than by the mathematical concepts being conveyed.
Furthermore, students with weak mathematical foundations may struggle to adapt to AR technology, which can
hinder their ability to develop strong conceptual knowledge. Not all students can explore technology
independently or possess the intrinsic motivation required for active learning in virtual environments. This
affects the effectiveness of conceptual learning.
Teachers face challenges due to limited knowledge and skills in integrating AR into mathematics teaching. Not
all teachers possess the expertise to effectively apply AR in their lessons. Some teachers apply AR merely to
display objects or animations without linking them to essential concepts such as relationships, structures, or
mathematical properties. Teachers also need a deep understanding of mathematical conceptual knowledge to
ensure that AR truly supports student learning (Abdullah, 2020). Many teachers have not received formal training
on AR applications in mathematics, particularly in visually demanding and abstract topics such as 3D shapes,
geometry, fractions, space, and functions. Constraints such as time, workload, and lack of confidence in using
advanced technology hinder the optimal integration of AR in daily teaching practices. However, some teachers
perceive technology as merely an additional tool rather than a primary means of building mathematical
understanding.
These challenges should not be seen as barriers but as opportunities to assess the actual needs of the education
system in providing a conducive and responsive learning environment. Emphasis on digital literacy, professional
training for teachers, and comprehensive educational technology policies must be prioritized to ensure effective
AR-based learning. With holistic support from all stakeholders, AR has the potential to become a key
pedagogical tool in strengthening students' conceptual knowledge in mathematics, thereby improving both
performance and motivation.
Implications Of Ar
In the 21st-century era of education, which emphasizes active learning and the integration of digital technology,
the use of AR in mathematics teaching and learning is seen as an innovative way to enhance students' conceptual
understanding. Conceptual understanding in mathematics refers to a profound grasp of principles, relationships,
and structures that goes beyond simply memorizing procedures. While AR offers numerous benefits in terms of
visualization and interactivity, its implementation also raises various implications for students, teachers, and
schools, both positive and negative.
The use of AR provides students with opportunities to explore mathematical concepts visually and concretely,
particularly in abstract topics such as three-dimensional geometry, transformations, and function graphs.
Through direct interaction with virtual objects, students can improve their conceptual understanding, particularly
for complex topics. Additionally, AR promotes logical reasoning and higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) in
mathematics.
AR integration makes math teaching and learning more active and student-centered. Enjoyable and interactive
experiences boost students' interest and motivation in tackling complex mathematics topics. This increased
interest and motivation led to a better understanding and higher performance in mathematics. However, negative
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implications also need to be taken into consideration. Students' dependency on AR may affect their learning
attitudes. For those with limited technological skills or weak mathematical foundations, interacting with AR
applications can lead to confusion and misconceptions. Furthermore, AR may distract some students, as they
focus more on visuals rather than the intended mathematical content. This situation risks shallow understanding
and failure to build long-term conceptual mastery (Nadzri et al., 2023).
The integration of AR in mathematics instruction offers positive implications for teachers by enabling them to
help students visualize abstract concepts, such as geometric transformations or function mapping, more
concretely. Besides serving as a pedagogical innovation, AR supports constructivist and inquiry-based teaching
approaches, indirectly enhancing the integration of higher-order thinking skills in mathematics classrooms.
Nevertheless, a lack of knowledge about AR technology can hinder its effective implementation. Without proper
training and support, teachers may end up using technology merely as a presentation tool rather than linking it
to meaningful mathematical learning outcomes (Chandrasegaran & Maat, 2023). However, developing AR-
based teaching materials requires time, creativity, and additional effort, which can be burdensome for teachers
if not supported by relevant institutions. The lack of AR software or applications that align closely with
curriculum objectives also makes it challenging for teachers to fully maximize AR in strengthening students'
conceptual knowledge.
Comparing AR-based and traditional teaching methods reveals significant differences in students' engagement,
understanding, and motivation. Traditional mathematics instruction often emphasises procedural fluency and
teacher-centered delivery, while AR-based approaches encourage experiential and interactive learning. Apriza
et al. (2024) found that students exposed to AR environments demonstrated greater conceptual retention and
enthusiasm compared to those in traditional settings. Similarly, Salleh and Md Salleh (2020) reported that
integrating AR in three-dimensional geometry improved students' performance and engagement. Shahudin and
Mohd Nordin (2024) also showed that AR applications supported a deeper understanding of geometric
principles, as learners could manipulate and visualize 3D objects directly. These findings suggest that AR
integration can complement traditional pedagogy by fostering active knowledge construction rather than passive
information reception.
The use of AR in mathematics education aligns with key pedagogical frameworks such as Bloom's Taxonomy
and the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) model. Through AR, students can progress
beyond basic levels of remembering and understanding to higher-order thinking skills like applying, analysing,
and creating (Bakim & Abdul Hanid, 2024). For educators, AR integration enhances the TPACK framework by
improving teachers' ability to effectively combine technological tools, pedagogical strategies, and mathematical
content (Chandrasegaran & Maat, 2023). By unifying these three domains, teachers can design lessons that
engage students in exploring mathematical concepts more deeply, connecting virtual representations to abstract
reasoning (Ramli & Mohd Tajudin, 2021). This pedagogical alignment ensures that AR functions not just as a
visual aid but as an instructional medium that promotes critical thinking and problem-solving.
Despite its pedagogical potential, the scalability of AR implementation in Malaysian schools is hindered by
issues of cost, infrastructure, and accessibility. Developing AR-based lessons demands devices, reliable internet
access, and technical support, which are unevenly distributed between urban and rural schools (Mat Adam et al.,
2022). Moreover, teachers may require ongoing professional development to integrate AR effectively into
mathematics lessons. To improve feasibility, schools can adopt affordable measures such as using open-source
AR applications (e.g., GeoGebra AR, Merge EDU) and establishing digital-sharing networks among educators.
Collaborating with local universities and technology companies can also support the provision of resources and
training (Chandrasegaran & Maat, 2023). Addressing these infrastructural and financial obstacles is essential to
ensuring equitable access and sustainable AR integration across Malaysian educational settings.
Recommendations For Improving Ar Integration In Enhancing Mathematical Conceptual Knowledge
The integration of Augmented Reality (AR) technology in mathematics education has opened new opportunities
for more interactive, visual, and engaging learning experiences (Mohd Fadzil & Mohd Noor, 2023). However,
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its implementation still faces several challenges that can affect the effectiveness of AR in building mathematical
conceptual knowledge among students (Mat Adam et al., 2022; Bakim & Abdul Hanid, 2024). Therefore, several
improvement suggestions can be put forward to ensure that AR integration has a positive and optimal impact on
students and teachers.
From the student's perspective, emphasis should be placed on developing fundamental skills in using AR
technology in mathematics learning. Students need gradual exposure through training and guidance, especially
in connecting the visual elements of AR to core mathematical concepts, as highlighted by Nadzri and Ayub
(2023). This support is crucial because effective AR use involves students interpreting 3D visual representations
and linking them to symbolic mathematical expressions, which enhances higher-order conceptual understanding.
Interactive modules that combine gamification elements with student-centered learning can be introduced to
boost motivation and improve understanding of abstract mathematical concepts such as 3D shapes, functions,
and spatial transformations (Salleh & Md Salleh, 2020; Shahudin & Mohd Nordin, 2024). The use of gamified
AR tasks has also been shown to foster curiosity and persistence, supporting long-term retention of mathematical
knowledge. Additionally, students with weak mathematical foundations should receive extra support, such as
guided practice, reinforcement activities, and tasks emphasizing visual and manipulative higher-order thinking
(Apriza et al., 2024).
For teachers, improvements can be made through continuous professional training that is practical and focuses
on integrating AR in mathematics topics, especially those that are difficult and abstract. This training should
combine technical, pedagogical, and content aspects (TPACK) so that teachers are not only skilled in using
technology, but also understand how to relate it directly to the mathematical concepts being taught
(Chandrasegaran & Maat, 2023). The integration of TPACK ensures that AR was used not as a novelty but as a
meaningful pedagogical tool aligned with curriculum objectives and students' cognitive development. In
addition, sharing good practices in mathematics teaching among teachers can become a platform for exchanging
resources, experiences, and effective AR-based teaching strategies (Christopher Jerry & Jamaludin, 2021).
Teachers need to be involved in the development of AR materials or modules so that they better understand the
pedagogical potential that can be applied in the classroom (Ramli & Mohd Tajudin, 2021). Teacher participation
in content creation also enhances ownership, contextual relevance, and pedagogical alignment of AR resources
with students' learning needs.
CONCLUSION
Overall, integrating Augmented Reality (AR) technology into mathematics teaching and learning presents an
innovative approach that can significantly enhance students’ conceptual understanding in a more effective,
visual, and interactive way. AR not only helps students grasp abstract mathematical ideas such as three-
dimensional geometry, functions, and spatial transformations, but also promotes student-centered, collaborative,
active, and meaningful learning. Its use has been demonstrated to positively influence students' achievement,
interest, and motivation, thereby contributing to the improvement of mathematics education quality. However,
implementing AR in mathematics education still faces various challenges, including students’ digital readiness,
teachers’ competence, and institutional limitations related to infrastructure and policy support. Therefore,
systematic and comprehensive efforts must involve students, teachers, and school administrations to maximize
the effectiveness of AR integration. This includes targeted professional development training for teachers,
creating interactive modules aligned with the curriculum, and establishing clear guidelines for AR
implementation. In conclusion, AR integration is no longer merely a technological option; it has become a
necessity for realizing the aspirations of 21st-century mathematics education, which emphasises deep conceptual
mastery, higher-order thinking skills, and preparedness to meet the challenges of the Fourth Industrial Revolution
(IR 4.0). With careful planning and extensive support, AR has the potential to drive a transformation in school-
based mathematics education, particularly in enhancing students' conceptual understanding of mathematics.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by funding from the National University of Malaysia (GG-2024-001).
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