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Teaching Arabic as a Third Language with Higher Education 5.0
Technologies
Airil Haimi Mohd Adnan
Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Shah Alam, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000314
Received: 12 October 2025; Accepted: 19 October 2025; Published: 11 November 2025
ABSTRACT
Within Malaysian higher education institutions, Arabic holds particular appeal as a tertiary language option,
attracting students from the Malay-Muslim demographic. Their motivation stems largely from religious
foundations, as familiarity with the Islamic Holy Book the Qur’an provides both linguistic exposure and spiritual
connection. Many students view Arabic proficiency as a pathway to deeper Islamic understanding and enhanced
religious devotion. However, pedagogical approaches in Arabic instruction appear markedly conservative when
compared with English and other foreign language courses, continuing to emphasise conventional teacher-
centred methodologies supplemented by rote vocabulary acquisition and memorisation techniques. This
pedagogical conservatism raises significant concerns given the characteristics of contemporary learners:
Generation Z (born 1995-2015) and the emerging Generation Alpha (born 2011-2025) have developed as digital
natives, demonstrating both comfort with and preference for technology-enhanced learning environments.
Through analysis of data gathered via an extensive online survey encompassing 250 respondents, this
investigation examines these pedagogical considerations. The instrument incorporated both closed Likert-scale
statements and open-ended questions designed to capture participants’ perspectives and expectations regarding
Arabic language instruction within the Higher Education 5.0 paradigm, specifically examining their
receptiveness to innovative educational technology and digital applications.
Keywords: language instruction, third language, educational technologies, Education 5.0, Malaysia
INTRODUCTION
As a Semitic language with global significance, Arabic possesses considerable cultural and literary richness
worthy of scholarly attention. Historical linguistics distinguishes two principal branches: Southern Arabic and
Northern Arabic. Whilst southern Arabian societies demonstrated advanced civilisation through established
writing systems and legal frameworks, northern communities developed their own juridical traditions. Crucially,
the northern dialect achieved elevated status as the language of divine revelation, forming the linguistic
foundation of the Qur’an. Following the Ma’rib empire’s decline, southern merchants migrated northward across
the Arabian Peninsula. Subsequently, Mecca's emergence as Islam’s spiritual epicentre precipitated the gradual
diminishment of southern linguistic variants, establishing Northern Arabic’s predominance through the Qur’an’s
revelations and Islam’s expansion (Omar, Ali, Salleh & Abdullah, 2017).
Ryding (2005) proposes a five-stage evolutionary framework for Arabic development. The initial Proto-Arabic
phase (starting at around the 7th century BC) remains sparsely documented. The subsequent Early Arabic period
witnessed significant linguistic transformation from the third century AD onwards, evolving towards Classical
Arabic by the fourth century. The Classical period (6th century AD onwards) represents Arabic’s most
significant developmental phase, characterised by rich poetic traditions and tribal recitation customs. Islam’s
seventh-century emergence proved pivotal, as the Qur’an’s revelation established the language’s liturgical
centrality. The Middle Arabic period coincided with the Islamic empire’s declining influence during the
thirteenth century amidst foreign incursions. The final Modern Arabic phase late in the eighteenth century,
marked a renaissance with literary output diverging substantially from Classical forms. This period witnessed
Arabic’s recognition as a pluricentric language by achieving official status across Arab nations during World
War II (Aboelezz, 2015).
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LITERATURE REVIEW
Contemporary estimates position Arabic amongst the world’s five most widely spoken languages, with over 400
million speakers globally (UNESCO, 2017). Multiple factors drive its expanding usage, including economic
considerations, tourism development, educational opportunities, and sociopolitical influences (Mat Teh, Firdaus
& Nasir, 2019). Since 1973, Arabic has maintained official status within the United Nations, with December
18th commemorated annually as the World Arabic Language Day (UNESCO, 2017).
Global perspectives on Arabic language pedagogy
Arabic is experiencing a contemporary renaissance, with growing international recognition of its educational
value. Within the Arab world, the United Arab Emirates exemplifies sustained commitment to Arabic language
development since 2012, implementing comprehensive programmes across educational institutions. These
initiatives pursue dual objectives: linguistic preservation and pedagogical modernisation through demonstrable
outcomes. Key programmes include the Arabic Language Charter, Arabic for Life Report, Arabic Reading
Challenge, Reading Law, and Arabic Strategy for Literacy (Thomure, 2019). Additionally, the Ministry of
Education there has undertaken reforms encompassing leadership reorganisation, enhanced teacher supervision,
school leadership development, infrastructure modernisation, and technology integration within Arabic-medium
education (Alhumaid, 2014). The United States demonstrates how non-Arab nations have expanded language
instruction since 2000, incorporating Chinese, Hindi, Korean, Persian, Russian, Turkish, and Arabic into
university curricula (Al Alili & Hassan, 2017). The 11 September 2001 attacks catalysed significant American
interest in Arabic studies. Between 1998 and 2009, Arabic enrolment in American universities outpaced all third
languages, including Spanish. American educators recognise Arabic proficiency as crucial for students’ career
advancement across sectors (Edwards, Ander & Herda, 2015).
Malaysia is another foreign nation where Arabic maintains educational prominence due to the predominantly
Muslim population. Arabic’s intimate connection with Islamic theology stems from its necessity for Qur’anic
comprehension and Islamic scholarship. Arabic instruction in Malaysia commenced with Islam’'s thirteenth-
century arrival (Omar, Ali, Salleh & Abdullah, 2017). Numerous archaeological evidence documents the
religion’s Malay Peninsula presence, notably the ‘Batu Bersurat Hulu Terengganu’ or inscribed stone testimony
to Islam’s earlier arrival than previously documented (Mat Teh, Firdaus & Nasir, 2019). Historical records
indicate Islam’s propagation through intermarriage and commercial relationships with Middle Eastern Islamic
scholars. Initial Arabic instruction occurred through informal settings like mosques and teachers’ residences.
Subsequently, ‘pondok’ institutions emerged, providing structured education. The nineteenth century saw these
institutions turning into formal learning establishments accommodating pupils from diverse backgrounds. Male
(Ustaz) and female (Ustazah) teachers delivered Arabic language and Islamic studies instruction (Omar, Ali,
Salleh & Abdullah, 2017), and Arabic has since maintained continuous growth in Malaysia (Yahaya, 2016).
Arabic language instruction in Malaysian tertiary education
Research by Mat and Wan Abas (2016) examining adults students reveals Arabic’s continued relevance as a
third language, particularly in and for Islamic Studies programmes. Lotfie and Ghalib’s (2013) investigation into
student perceptions demonstrates that Arabic courses within Islamic university curricula develop essential
linguistic competencies for engaging with Islamic texts. Consequently, students integrate Islamic perspectives
with their primary disciplines; students pursue Arabic to enhance Qur’anic understanding, whilst strengthening
reading comprehension sub-skills and Arabic vocabulary retention strategies. In another study, Arifin,
Riddzwan, Abdul Latiff, and Abdul Halim (2014) surveyed distance learning students’ attitudes towards Arabic
language development. They found that students consider Arabic essential given its global prevalence, enabling
communication and integration particularly for those contemplating studies in Arab nations. Yusri, Rahimi,
Shah, and Wan Haslina (2011) also found that university students held positive feelings towards Arabic,
perceiving it as aesthetically pleasing and expressing genuine enthusiasm when practising basic Arabic
expressions. Positive language perceptions connect strongly with Malaysia’s Asian-Islamic identity. Ultimately,
students with prior Arabic exposure demonstrated confidence regarding the language subject’s complexity than
novice learners (Mohd Adnan, 2017a, 2017b).
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Technological innovations in Arabic language pedagogy
Abu Samak (2006) positions educational technology as a global concern instrumental in developing nations’
advancement. Furthermore, technology integration proves essential by enabling students to construct relevant
content and establish connections through autonomous information discovery during learning processes (Adnan
& Kusmawan, 2024; Akil & Adnan, 2022; May, Adnan & Rosly, 2023). Mills (1999) demonstrated technology’s
capacity to substantially enhance learner engagement and interest in language acquisition. Indeed, Malaysian
Arabic language education has experienced multiple transformations responding to technological progress.
Novel methodologies and approaches have rendered Arabic teaching and learning increasingly dynamic and
resource-rich (Lawal, 2017). However, adapting contemporary technologies to Arabic instruction presents
considerable challenges (Ditters, 2006), as English’s dominance pervades both software and hardware
developments in language teaching technology (Karim, Adnan, Salim, Kamarudin & Zaidi, 2020; Karim, Adnan,
Tahir, Adam, Idris & Ismail, 2020).
Computer-Assisted Language Learning or CALL is an archetype of Higher Education 5.0 technology use within
language classrooms (Shah, Adnan, M. S. Salim & M. N. Salim, 2025). Scholars acknowledge CALL’s nascent
status in Arabic language teaching contexts, particularly across Malaysia and the United Arab Emirates (Sahrir,
Yahaya & Nasir, 2013). This situation reflects insufficient partnership between Arabic education creators and
instructional technology specialists. Zawawi (2008) observes CALL’s peculiar position in Arabic classrooms,
attributing this to Arabic teachers’ preference for conventional pedagogical methods over technological
approaches. Additionally, limited computer proficiency, especially amongst experienced language educators,
impedes CALL implementation in Malaysian Arabic education. Blended Learning or BL, another Higher
Education 5.0 related concept, also enjoys widespread adoption in Malaysian tertiary Arabic language
instruction, representing positive progress. Banditvilai (2016) characterises BL as an educational framework
merging online educational resources and interactive opportunities with conventional classroom instruction.
Within Arabic language classroom contexts, Alasraj and Alharbi (2014) observed that blended learning
integration has diminished learner dependence on teachers. Students gain opportunities to explore instructional
materials independently, eliminating obligatory teacher reliance for lesson completion.
Research rationale and objectives
The Fourth Industrial Revolution exerts profound global influence (Adnan, Karim, Tahir, Mustafa Kamal &
Yusof, 2019). The convergence of Artificial Intelligence or AI, big data analytics, and Internet of Things or IoT
technologies is reshaping educational, learning, and professional paradigms. Educational institutions have
initiated modifications to actualise Education 5.0 principles (Adnan, 2020). In general, the terms ‘Higher
Education 5.0 technologies’ describe how digital tools like AI, IoT, and mixed realities (MR/XR) are being
incorporated into the classroom to produce a more efficient, human-centred, and customised learning
environment that better equips students for the needs of Society 5.0. In order to produce graduates that are
prepared to face the uncertain future, this entails utilising data analytics for individualised learning, VR/AR for
immersive experiences, encouraging digital literacy and abilities, and cultivating flexibility. The endgame is a
comprehensive change that combines humanism and technology innovations to address difficult problems and
guarantee that students acquire both hard and soft skills prior to graduation.
Contemporary implementations also include students employing collaborative digital applications for group
assignments and projects, subsequently uploading outputs online (Adnan, Ahmad, Yusof, Mohd Kamal &
Mustafa Kamal, 2019; Mustafa Kamal, Adnan, Yusof, Ahmad, & Mohd Kamal, 2019). Teaching-learning
environments have also began transitioning towards completely paperless operations, eliminating traditional
chalk-and-talk methodologies through open platforms such as Google Classroom. Within the next five years,
conventional university classrooms will undergo dramatic transformation; physical configurations will change
as virtual and augmented reality technologies penetrate mainstream educational settings. Flexible assignments
will accommodate individualised learning preferences, whilst Internet-based learning opportunities will impact
education across all levels (Dunwill, 2016). At the same time, Shahroom and Hussin (2018) highlight increasing
complexity. Contemporary youths (Millennials or ‘Gen Z’) demonstrate advanced digital literacy, developing
distinctive personalities alongside unique modes of understanding, expression, and communication that diverge
from previous generations. Rather than conventional learning approaches, these groups favour intelligent
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learning incorporating imagery, audio, video, gaming, recreation, and AI. Consequently, educators must embrace
online platforms and devise innovative instructional approaches satisfying the younger generations’
requirements and preferences (Mohd Kamal, Adnan, Mustafa Kamal, Ahmad & Yusof, 2019; Ahmad, Adnan,
Yusof, Mohd Kamal & Mustafa Kamal, 2019). Based on the above, a first-hand investigation was undertaken to
accomplish two research objectives (RO):
RO1: What preferences do students at university hold regarding Arabic language learning through technological
tools and applications?
RO2: How should lecturers at university modify their Arabic language instruction using high-tech tools and
applications for students’ benefits?
METHODOLOGY
Research design
The collection of data occurred in the months prior to, during and after the time of the global pandemic of SARS-
CoV-2. An online survey with Likert-scale items alongside opinion-based questions captured respondents’
feelings, opinions and perspectives on the research issues.
Survey respondents
Overall, 250 respondents completed the survey; all were first degree students from a public university in
Peninsular Malaysia. Female respondents make up nearly two thirds (64%) compared to males. The majority
were aged 21 years (63.2%), with 19 and 20-year-olds each representing equal proportions (11.2%). Remaining
respondents included 22-year-olds (8.4%), and students aged 23+ (6%). The respondents hailed from the Faculty
of Built Environment and the Faculty of Creative Arts with nearly equal numbers from both.
Survey instrument
The 18-item survey was constructed to assess constructs within both research objectives. Items utilised a 6-point
scale starting with ‘strongly disagree’ and ending with ‘strongly agree’, and deliberately excluding neutral
options. To verify whether items reliably measured similar latent variables (enabling Likert-type scale
development), Cronbach’s Alpha testing was conducted on twenty comparable respondents. Following removal
of three items, the final reliability coefficient achieved .879 (reliable survey instrument).
The online survey comprised three sections. The first gathered demographic data including gender, age, study
programme, current semester, and Arabic learning experience. The second section explored respondents’
perceptions regarding technology implementation in Arabic instruction and its efficiency in enhancing the
learning process. The last section contained open questions enabling participants to elaborate their opinions. In
total, the questionnaire includes 7 demographic questions, 15 items for Arabic instruction, and three more ‘open’
questions. The data collected were analysed to be presented in the next section.
Data analysis
IBM SPSS Statistics (version 29.0) was employed for comprehensive quantitative analysis of the survey data.
Cronbach’s Alpha was calculated to assess internal consistency reliability, yielding a coefficient of α = .879
following removal of three items based on pilot testing with 20 respondents. This exceeds the conventional
threshold of .70 and demonstrates excellent internal consistency (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994).
Comprehensive descriptive analyses included means, medians, modes, standard deviations, and frequency
distributions across the six-point Likert scale. Agreement and disagreement percentages were calculated by
combining positive and negative response categories respectively. Standard errors (SE = SD / √n) assessed the
precision of mean estimates, while 95% confidence intervals were constructed for both means (M ± 1.96 × SE)
and proportions to establish population parameter ranges. Cohen’s d effect sizes were calculated using d = (M -
3.5) / SD to quantify practical significance of deviations from the neutral midpoint, interpreted following Cohen's
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(1988) conventions: small (d = 0.20), medium (d = 0.50), and large (d = 0.80). Skewness coefficients assessed
response distribution symmetry. Item Q10 was reverse-coded (7 - raw score) due to negative wording. Cross-
item comparisons examined patterns across technological interventions and relationships between technology
awareness, normative beliefs, and current practice, with implementation gaps calculated as percentage point
differences between expectations and reported reality.
Ethics and limitations
The study ensured participant confidentiality, voluntary participation, informed consent, and secure data storage
following institutional ethical protocols. Online data collection presents several advantages. For example,
enhanced return rates together with minimal costs. The simplicity of the online survey generated high response
rates (n=250). Additionally, the respondents answered open questions.
Simultaneously, online data collection presents disadvantages regarding unscientific sampling, potentially
compromising the reliability and validity of collected datasets. Regarding sampling, despite current
normalisation, not everyone maintains constant Internet access. University students may lack consistent Internet
access due to mobile Internet costs. Furthermore, online survey data collection’s most significant detriment
involves the fraud potential. If online survey questionnaires prove excessively lengthy or complex, fraudulent
responses may proliferate. Reduced online accountability increases likelihood of respondents arbitrarily
selecting responses to complete questionnaires quickly.
FINDINGS
Demographic data
The majority of respondents (90%) had studied Arabic as a third language before enrolling in their respective
university courses, whilst only 10% of participants lacked any prior Arabic language classroom experience.
Although other third language elective courses exist, it can be presumed that most respondents chose Arabic due
to existing familiarity with the language. With the majority possessing prior Arabic learning experience, they
had encountered different teaching styles and classroom teaching aids.
Figure 1 illustrates the exposure to Arabic that the respondents have received. For those who studied Arabic
previously, approximately 70.8% started during primary school, whilst 37.2% started at secondary level. Others
learned this third language from alternative sources or locations. Regarding proficiency, the majority reported
having basic Arabic proficiency (87.2%), followed by intermediate (12.4%), with only 2% having advanced
fluency and overall proficiency. Although nearly all of them indicated previous Arabic language study, language
mastery levels remain predominantly at the basic level. This data suggest that university lecturers might employ
different instructional approaches accommodating lower Arabic proficiency levels, including incorporating
classroom-based technology.
Figure 1. The learning of Arabic as a third language prior to Malaysian university entry
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University students’ preferences for learning Arabic using technologies (RO1)
Due to the limits of space, only selected survey items are presented and analysed in this subsection. For the item
focusing on whether the usage of social media can help students learn Arabic better (see Figure 2), the results
reveal a divided yet predominantly positive perspective. The distribution shows 95 participants (38%) agree, 67
participants (26.8%) slightly agree, and 25 participants (10%) strongly agree, yielding a total agreement rate of
74.8% (n=187, 95% CI: [69.3%, 80.3%]). Conversely, 36 participants (14.4%) slightly disagree, 24 participants
(9.6%) disagree, and 3 participants (1.2%) strongly disagree, comprising 25.2% (n=63, 95% CI: [19.7%, 30.7%])
in total disagreement.
While the results skew more heavily toward agreement, the substantial minority expressing disagreement
(approximately 1 in 4 students) warrants careful consideration. The standard deviation of 1.32 indicates moderate
variability in responses, reflecting genuine diversity of opinion rather than uniform consensus. This statistical
evidence demonstrates that although the majority (74.8%) is open to the utilization of social media as part of the
teaching aid, a notable 25.2% of participants do not believe that using social media will be constructive in
learning the Arabic language. The narrow confidence intervals for both agreement [69.3%, 80.3%] and
disagreement [19.7%, 30.7%] percentages, combined with the small standard error (SE=0.083), provide strong
evidence that these findings are statistically robust with the sample size of 250 participants. The distribution’s
slight negative skew (-0.52) confirms the tendency toward agreement, though not overwhelmingly so.
Figure 2. Social media use for the learning of Arabic as a third language
Regarding virtual reality (VR) implementation in Arabic language instruction (Figure 3), an overwhelming 84%
of respondents (n=210, 95% CI: [79.3%, 88.7%]) perceive VR as beneficial for facilitating language acquisition.
Agreement levels comprised 45.2% (n=113) agreeing, 24% (n=60) slightly agreeing, and 14.8% (n=37) strongly
agreeing. Conversely, merely 16% (n=40, 95% CI: [11.3%, 20.7%]) expressed reservations, with 8% each
slightly disagreeing or disagreeing, whilst none strongly disagreed. Statistical analysis demonstrates robust
endorsement, with a mean score of M=4.49 (SD=1.16) exceeding the neutral threshold of 3.5. The 95%
confidence interval [4.35, 4.63] confirms reliability, whilst the standard deviation suggests greater consensus
than observed for social media integration (SD=1.32). Cohen’s d of 0.85 indicates substantial practical
significance, with negative skewness (-0.78) highlighting pronounced positive sentiment. These findings reflect
considerable student interest in emerging technologies for Arabic language learning.
Augmented reality (AR) yielded comparable results, with 85.6% (n=214, 95% CI: [81.1%, 90.1%]) endorsing
its efficacy for accelerated language acquisition, compared to 14.4% (n=36) expressing disagreement.
Agreement comprised 46.4% (n=116), 28.4% (n=71) slight agreement, and 10.8% (n=27) strong agreement. The
parallel acceptance patterns between VR (M=4.49, SD=1.16) and AR (M=4.51, SD=1.14) suggest students
conceptualise immersive technologies as unified pedagogical interventions rather than discrete tools. This
statistical congruence, reflected in comparable agreement rates, standard deviations, and effect sizes, provides
compelling empirical justification for integrating extended reality technologies within Arabic language curricula,
demonstrating both widespread student receptivity and pedagogical viability.
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Figure 3. AR and VR use for the learning of Arabic as a third language
Game applications demonstrated the strongest support among all technological interventions (Figure 4), with
86.8% of participants (n=217, 95% CI: [82.6%, 91.0%]) endorsing their implementation, whilst only 13.2%
(n=33, 95% CI: [9.0%, 17.4%]) expressed disagreement. Agreement comprised 47.2% (n=118), 20.8% (n=52)
strong agreement, and 18.8% (n=47) slight agreement. Disagreement remained minimal, with 7.6% (n=19)
slightly disagreeing, 4% (n=10) disagreeing, and merely 1.6% (n=4) strongly disagreeing. Statistical analysis
revealed game applications as the clear frontrunner, achieving the highest mean score (M=4.59, SD=1.19,
SE=0.075) across all technological tools examined. The 95% confidence interval [4.44, 4.74] confirms robust
support, whilst Cohen’s d of 0.92 represents the strongest effect size observed, demonstrating substantial
pedagogical relevance. The distribution’s pronounced negative skewness (-0.89) reflects considerable consensus
regarding game-based learning benefits.
Notably, game applications garnered significantly higher strong agreement (20.8%) compared to VR (14.8%)
and AR (10.8%), suggesting deeper conviction rather than mere acceptance. Comparative analysis underscores
this superiority: whilst VR (M=4.49, 84% agreement) and AR (M=4.51, 85.6% agreement) demonstrated strong
support, game applications exceeded both by 0.08-0.10 points. Furthermore, game applications maintained a
substantial 12-point advantage over social media (M=4.16, 74.8% agreement). The narrow confidence intervals
and small standard error provide strong statistical assurance of reliability. The convergence of highest agreement
rates, largest effect size, and lowest disagreement collectively establishes game applications as the most
pedagogically promising student-endorsed technological tool surveyed.
Figure 4. Game applications use for the learning of Arabic as a third language
Regarding current technology integration (this is a negatively worded survey item, see Figure 5), over half of
the participants (66.4%, n=166, 95% CI: [60.5%, 72.3%]) disagreed that their Arabic lecturers eschew
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technological tools, whilst 33.6% (n=84, 95% CI: [27.7%, 39.5%]) perceived otherwise. Disagreement
comprised 32.4% (n=81), 23.2% (n=58) slight disagreement, and 10.8% (n=27) strong disagreement.
Conversely, 15.6% (n=39) slightly agreed, 15.2% (n=38) agreed, and merely 2.8% (n=7) strongly agreed.
Statistical analysis reveals moderate technology adoption. The raw mean (M=2.88, SD=1.53, SE=0.097) falls
below the neutral threshold of 3.5. However, reverse coding yields an adjusted mean of M=4.12 (95% CI: [3.93,
4.31]), positioning current adoption moderately above neutral and comparable to social media integration
(M=4.16). Notably, the standard deviation of 1.53 represents the highest variability observed, indicating
considerably diverse experiences and suggesting inconsistent adoption practices across lecturers. The moderate
positive skewness (+0.58) confirms that whilst most students experience technological integration, a meaningful
minority encounters minimal implementation.
These findings reveal mixed experiences skewed towards technology usage, with the modal response being
“Disagree” (32.4%). Statistical evidence indicates that whilst approximately two-thirds report technology
integration, one-third (95% CI: [27.7%, 39.5%]) experience conventional instruction. This represents a
significant implementation gap, particularly noteworthy given students’ strong enthusiasm for game applications
(86.8%), VR (84%), and AR (85.6%). The wide confidence intervals and elevated standard deviation underscore
variable practices, suggesting technology adoption remains lecturer-dependent rather than systematically
integrated, thereby highlighting opportunities for addressing this underserved population predisposed towards
technological enhancement.
Figure 5. Technology integration in the teaching of Arabic as a third language (negatively worded)
A substantial majority of participants (86.8%, n=217, 95% CI: [82.6%, 91.0%]) endorsed the normative
statement that Arabic lecturers should employ technological tools (Figure 6), with 47.6% (n=119) agreeing,
25.2% (n=63) slightly agreeing, and 14% (n=35) strongly agreeing. Conversely, only 13.2% (n=33, 95% CI:
[9.0%, 17.4%]) disagreed, comprising 8% (n=20) slight disagreement, 3.2% (n=8) disagreement, and 2% (n=5)
strong disagreement. Statistical analysis reveals remarkably strong normative expectations. The mean score
(M=4.59, SD=1.17, SE=0.074) with 95% confidence interval [4.44, 4.74] demonstrates robust consensus
favouring technology integration. Cohen’s d of 0.93 represents very large practical significance, whilst the low
standard deviation reflects considerable agreement. Strong negative skewness (-0.85) confirms pronounced
agreement tendencies.
Notably, this normative belief (M=4.59, 86.8%) perfectly aligns with game application acceptance (M=4.59,
86.8%), suggesting students’ prescriptive expectations directly correspond to technological willingness. This
concordance extends to AR simulations (85.6%, 1.2% gap) and VR simulations (84%, 2.8% gap), demonstrating
concrete openness rather than abstract ideals. However, a critical implementation gap emerges, whilst 86.8%
believe technology should be utilised, only 66.4% report current implementation, representing a 20.4 percentage
point deficit affecting approximately 51 students. This gap constitutes 30.7% of ideal implementation levels,
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signifying substantial missed pedagogical opportunities. The statistical robustness remains unambiguous.
Narrow confidence intervals, small standard error, and consistent modal response (47.6%) provide compelling
evidence of stable, replicable normative beliefs. The convergence of elevated mean scores, agreement rates, very
large effect size, and low variability establishes technology integration as central normative expectation, one that
current practices inadequately fulfil for about one-fifth of students.
Figure 6. Desire for technology integration in the learning of Arabic
For this last survey item (Figure 7), an overwhelming majority of participants (92.8%, n=232, 95% CI: [89.6%,
96.0%]) acknowledged abundant applications and technologies available for Arabic language learning, whilst
merely 7.2% (n=18, 95% CI: [4.0%, 10.4%]) disagreed. Agreement comprised 46.8% (n=117), 29.6% (n=74)
strong agreement, and 16.4% (n=41) slight agreement. Disagreement remained negligible, with 4.4% (n=11)
slightly disagreeing, 1.6% (n=4) strongly disagreeing, and 1.2% (n=3) disagreeing. This item achieved
unparalleled statistical supremacy across all measures. The mean score (M=4.84, SD=1.06, SE=0.067)
represents the highest value observed, with the narrowest confidence interval [4.71, 4.97] demonstrating
exceptional precision. Cohen’s d of 1.26 constitutes the largest effect size recorded, indicating profound practical
importance exceeding conventional thresholds. The standard deviation of 1.06 reflects the strongest consensus,
whilst extreme negative skewness (-1.24) confirms heavy concentration towards agreement.
Remarkably, this awareness (92.8%) surpasses normative expectations (86.8%) by 6 percentage points,
suggesting students recognise that suitable tools already exist. The combined “Agree” and “Strongly Agree”
percentage (76.4%) substantially exceeds game applications (68%) and normative beliefs (61.6%). However, a
critical awareness-implementation gap emerges. Whilst 92.8% acknowledge available technologies, only 66.4%
report current implementation, representing a 26.4 percentage point deficit affecting approximately 66 students.
This constitutes the study’s largest disconnect, highlighting significant missed opportunities despite existing
infrastructure, near-universal awareness, strong normative support (86.8%), and high technology acceptance
(74.8-86.8%). A systematic attenuation pattern emerges, awareness (92.8%), normative beliefs (86.8%), specific
technology acceptance (74.8-86.8%), and reported implementation (66.4%). The convergence of near-universal
awareness, strong prescriptive beliefs, and concrete acceptance creates robust empirical foundations for
expanded integration. The 26.4-point gap represents the study’s most actionable finding: infrastructure and
student readiness exist, yet pedagogical practice inadequately meets student expectations or technological
availability.
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Figure 7. Perceptions regarding apps and technology tools in the learning of Arabic
University lecturers adapting to teaching Arabic using apps and other technologies (RO2)
Q16. “Do you feel your Arabic lecturer should use more technology to teach this language?”
Approximately 72.8% of respondents responded in a positive manner that their Arabic lecturers should
incorporate more technology into instruction within classroom settings. For those providing affirmative
responses, several recurring themes emerged as justifications for their positions: To introduce diversity into their
educational experience; Students actively utilise technology in daily life, for instance through smartphone usage;
and Conventional approaches such as collaborative group activities, concept mapping exercises and oral
presentations occasionally prove monotonous.
Conversely, 24.4% of participants provided negative responses instead. For those answering negatively, several
recurring themes emerged as rationales for their positions: Conventional approaches prove sufficient, for
instance, employing textbooks and whiteboards; Without appropriate implementation strategies, technology
remains equally ineffective; The existing instructional methodology proves adequately effective. An additional
2.8% of participants provided neither affirmative nor negative responses, believing technology usage for Arabic
instruction should be situational. One participant mentioned achieving equilibrium between conventional
methodology and technological instruments.
Q17. “Will the use of technology help you and your friends to learn Arabic better?”
Approximately 85.6% of the respondents concurred that technology utilisation will help them in achieving
superior level Arabic language acquisition. For those providing affirmative responses, several recurring themes
emerged as justifications for their positions: Physical classroom instruction proves inadequate; Enhanced
accessibility to exemplars such as instructional videos and translation resources; and improved retention of
Arabic vocabulary items.
Meanwhile, only 8% of participants indicated that technology would not facilitate improved Arabic language
acquisition. Three recurring rationales were identified from those providing negative responses: the financial
burden of utilising technologies, conventional methodology proves adequately effective, and technology usage
complicates their language comprehension processes. Approximately 6.4% of participants expressed
uncertainty, with one recurring rationale discerned from this percentile being that individual learner
characteristics determine whether technology facilitates easier Arabic language acquisition.
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Q18. “Compare between learning technologies for Arabic with learning technologies for English. What can you
observe between both?”
Several comparative themes emerged between Arabic and English language educational technologies.
Participants noted that English instruction benefits from more extensive technological resources and
accessibility, with technology appearing more naturally suited to English language pedagogy. Conversely,
Arabic language instruction underutilises technology’s full potential, often limiting implementation to video
materials exclusively. This disparity stems partly from Arabic’s smaller user base compared to English, resulting
in fewer available technological tools and applications designed specifically for Arabic learning. Technical
challenges further compound these limitations, particularly regarding Arabic script, which necessitates
specialised keyboards with integrated Arabic characters, creating additional barriers absent in English
instruction.
Despite these constraints, participants recognised that both languages could achieve comparable engagement
levels when technology is effectively employed, suggesting that the observed disparities reflect resource
availability and implementation rather than fundamental pedagogical incompatibility. These findings highlight
significant opportunities for expanding Arabic language technology integration whilst acknowledging the
practical challenges requiring address.
FINDINGS
From the data, two different but quite related patterns emerge. The first is regarding Malaysian university
students’ preferences for specific technology tools, and the second is the awareness, beliefs and gaps in actual
educational technology practices in the teaching and learning of Arabic as a third language in Malaysia.
Students’ preferences regarding specific technology tools
The survey respondents largely show acceptance across four technological interventions for Arabic language
learning: game applications, augmented reality simulations, virtual reality simulations, and social media
integration (see Figure 8). VR and AR demonstrate remarkably parallel acceptance patterns, with differences of
merely a few percentage points separating them. Their nearly identical mean scores, comparable standard
deviations, and large effect sizes suggest students conceptualise these technologies as unified immersive learning
tools rather than discrete interventions. This statistical congruence indicates that immersive technologies are
perceived collectively as promising pedagogical approaches, reflecting a broader understanding that both virtual
and augmented reality offer similar affordances for language acquisition. The parallel enthusiasm suggests that
students recognise the shared benefits of spatial learning, interactive environments, and experiential engagement
that characterise immersive technologies generally.
That being said, game applications emerged as the clear frontrunner amongst all technological interventions
examined. Notably, game applications garnered substantially higher strong agreement compared to augmented
reality, nearly doubling the proportion of students expressing the highest level of enthusiasm. The convergence
of elevated mean scores, largest effect sizes, and minimal disagreement establishes game-based learning as the
most pedagogically promising intervention. This elevated enthusiasm likely reflects students’ positive
experiential familiarity with game applications in English language instruction, translating into robust
confidence regarding Arabic implementation. Students’ prior success with gamified learning appears to generate
authentic conviction rather than mere abstract acceptance, suggesting that experiential knowledge powerfully
shapes technological expectations.
Figure 8. The preferences of students’ regarding specific technology tools
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Conversely, social media integration lagged substantially behind alternative technologies. Notably higher
variability and medium rather than large effect sizes characterise social media acceptance, indicating
considerably less consensus amongst respondents. The disagreement rate proved approximately double that of
alternative technologies, suggesting considerably more polarised opinions. This polarisation potentially reflects
legitimate concerns regarding distraction, pedagogical appropriateness, or the blurring of academic and personal
digital spaces. Students may perceive social media as less conducive to focused language learning compared to
purpose-built educational technologies.
Interestingly, an inverse relationship emerges between acceptance rates and response variability. Technologies
generating higher agreement demonstrated stronger consensus, whilst lower-ranked interventions exhibited
greater opinion dispersion. This pattern indicates that compelling technologies generate not only broader
acceptance but also greater unanimity, whereas contested technologies produce more divided responses
reflecting genuine uncertainty about their pedagogical value. Despite varying enthusiasm levels, all interventions
achieve statistical robustness; even the lowest-ranked technology secures support, suggesting openness towards
diverse technological approaches despite clear hierarchical preferences favouring immersive technologies and
game-based learning for Arabic language instruction.
Implementation gap: Awareness, beliefs and actual practice
The data also reveals a compelling narrative of unrealised potential, examining the disconnect between student
awareness of available technologies, normative beliefs regarding technology integration, and the reality of
current classroom practice (Figure 9). Near-universal awareness establishes a robust foundation for expanded
implementation. The overwhelming majority of students recognise that abundant technological resources exist
for Arabic language learning, representing the strongest conviction observed across all survey dimensions. This
awareness demonstrates profound rather than tentative understanding, characterised by minimal variability and
exceptional effect sizes. Students possess genuine knowledge about available tools and are actively anticipating
their systematic integration into instruction. This awareness is neither abstract nor speculative but reflects
understanding of the technological landscape surrounding Arabic language education.
Figure 9. Between student’s awareness, beliefs and actual classroom practice
Strong normative alignment emerges between awareness and prescriptive expectations, with minimal attenuation
between recognising that technologies exist and believing they should be implemented. This direct translation
from awareness to normative conviction creates a powerful mandate for pedagogical innovation firmly grounded
in student expectations. Students are not merely passively aware of technological possibilities but actively
advocate for their incorporation, reflecting genuine investment in technology-enhanced learning experiences.
However, current practice captures only approximately three-quarters of both student awareness levels and
normative expectations. This implementation deficit represents the single largest opportunity identified
throughout the study. A substantial cohort of students simultaneously aware of technological possibilities and
supportive of integration nevertheless experience conventional instruction without technological enhancement.
This gap signifies considerable untapped potential for improved learning outcomes, representing students whose
educational experiences fall short of their expectations.
Most significantly, current practice exhibits the highest variability amongst all examined dimensions,
substantially exceeding the dispersion observed in either awareness or normative beliefs. This elevated
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inconsistency indicates highly uneven implementation patterns, with some students experiencing technology-
rich instruction whilst others receive entirely traditional approaches. This variability suggests the deficit stems
not from universal resistance or systematic barriers but rather from uneven adoption across individual lecturers,
specific courses, or different institutions. The gap therefore reflects implementation inconsistency rather than
fundamental pedagogical obstacles.
The convergence of near-universal awareness, robust normative support, high acceptance of specific
technological interventions, and demonstrated implementation feasibility creates optimal conditions for
systematic expansion. Infrastructure exists, awareness is comprehensive, and student support proves substantial.
The primary challenge appears to involve scaling existing practices systematically rather than overcoming
fundamental resistance or establishing initial proof-of-concept. The readiness exists; what remains is translating
sporadic adoption into consistent, institution-wide integration that meets student expectations and leverages
available technological resources effectively.
CONCLUSION
This empirical investigation of 250 university students in Malaysia, reveals compelling insights into
contemporary Arabic language pedagogy within Malaysian higher education. The findings demonstrate a clear
generational divide between student expectations and current pedagogical practices. Whilst an overwhelming
majority (86.8%) advocate for increased technological integration in Arabic instruction, and 92.8% acknowledge
the availability of diverse educational technologies, the data simultaneously exposes persistent attachment to
traditional methodologies amongst certain student cohorts. The research unveils a paradoxical landscape: 72.8%
of students desire enhanced technological adoption, yet from the survey 52.4% of them simultaneously endorse
whiteboard-based instruction, and 55.2% support memorisation-drilling techniques. This dichotomy suggests
students envision technology as supplementary rather than transformative, enhancing rather than replacing
conventional approaches. Particularly noteworthy is the enthusiastic reception towards immersive technologies:
84% endorsed virtual reality simulations and 85.6% supported augmented reality applications, indicating strong
receptivity towards innovative pedagogical instruments that transcend traditional boundaries.
The comparative analysis between English and Arabic language instruction proves particularly illuminating.
Students perceive English language pedagogy as more technologically sophisticated, attributing this disparity to
Arabic’s limited global user base and the technical challenges posed by Arabic script keyboards. This perception,
whether accurate or not, influences student expectations and potentially undermines Arabic language education's
perceived modernity and relevance. Most significantly, the data reveals that 66.4% of students observe their
Arabic lecturers already employing technological tools, contradicting assumptions of widespread technological
resistance. However, the gap between current implementation and student aspirations remains substantial.
The challenge facing Arabic language educators extends beyond mere technology adoption; it requires strategic
integration that respects traditional methodologies’ proven efficacy whilst embracing digital-native learners’
expectations. To end, future investigations would benefit from incorporating mixed methods approaches
combining classroom observations with lecturer perspectives on technology implementation. Comparative
studies across diverse institutional contexts, including private universities and Islamic higher learning
institutions, would also broaden contextual understanding. Last but not least, experimental research examining
specific technological interventions’ measurable impact on Arabic language education would also be a valuable
next step for the field.
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