INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4162
Review of Washback Effect of Chinese University English Language
Entrance Examination (2016–2025)
Huirong Geng, Harmi Izzuan Bin Baharum*
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, University Technology Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur Campus,
Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, 54100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000342
Received: 12 October 2025; Accepted: 20 October 2025; Published: 12 November 2025
ABSTRACT
The National Matriculation English Test (NMET), which is the English language entrance examination to
Chinese universities, has long been criticized for creating negative washback on English education in high
schools in China, as its high-stakes nature creates significant pressure on schools to align their teaching with test
requirements, given its wide ranging societal and educational impact. This paper reviews the empirical research
related to washback of NMET in the Chinese context. A systematic review was conducted on articles published
between 2016 and June, 2025. These articles were subjected to thematic analysis in which four broad categories
were identified: influence on teaching practices; influence on student learning strategies, motivation, and
perceptions; impact on learning outcomes; and the direction of washback. Findings suggest that future
researches are required to adopt longitudinal and multi-contextual approaches to capture the evolving nature of
washback, examine how reforms are mediated by local conditions, and explore strategies for bridging the gap
between exam preparation and the broader goals of English education.
Keywords: Washback effect, NMET, Teaching Practice, Learning Behavior, Learning Outcomes
INTRODUCTION
High-stakes examinations play a central role in shaping educational systems worldwide, exerting strong
influence on both teaching and learning. The National Matriculation English Test (NMET) is the most important
test for high school students in China, which is the English language test in the National College Entrance
Examinations (Gaokao). The NMET serves as both a gateway to higher education and a factor that shapes
students’ academic paths and life prospects. Because of its great importance, the NMET is known to have strong
washback effects on English education in China.
For the last thirty years, washback has been a major theme in applied linguistics. In China, there has been a lot of
washback research on the NMET, but the results are still complicated. The emerging body of research on
washback calls for a review of the literature. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the current state of
washback research on NMET in the context of China.
The present review brings together recent empirical studies to examine four dimensions: (a) the influence of the
NMET on teaching practices, (b) the influence on student learning strategies, motivation, and perceptions, (c) the
impact on learning outcomes and (d) the direction of washback, whether positive, negative, or mixed.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4163
Washback
Washback, also referred to as backwash, describes the influence that tests exert on teaching and learning. In
language education, this concept has been widely examined because high-stakes assessments often shape what is
taught, how it is taught, and how learners approach their studies. Alderson and Wall’s (1993) seminal work
formally conceptualized washback, proposing 15 hypotheses to explain the ways examinations affect
educational practices. Building on this, Hughes (1993) introduced a trichotomy model, distinguishing between
participants (teachers, learners, administrators), processes (teaching and learning activities), and products
(learning outcomes). This model highlighted the channels through which tests exert their effects. Bailey (1996)
extended the discussion by offering a basic model of washback that incorporated the direction and scope of test
influence. She emphasized the interplay between the test, the participants, and the broader educational context,
while distinguishing between positive and negative washback. Green’s (2007a) model investigates washback
from three dimension including washback direction, washback variability and washback intensity.
Nmet
Currently, the Chinese education system includes preschool, primary, secondary and tertiary education levels.
Primary school education, which lasts six years, and junior secondary education, which lasts three years, are
compulsory. After the completion of this nine-year compulsory education program, approximately 50% of junior
high students enter senior high school for an additional three years of study. At the end of the senior high school
education, the students are required to take the National College Entrance Examination (NCEE, known as
Gaokao in China). NCEE has become one of the most important systems of choosing talents in the world. And
scores gained in examination are used to evaluate students’ academic performance. The National Matriculation
English Test (NMET) is the English test of the National College Entrance Examination (NCEE).
NMET has a great influence on students’ future and destiny in China. Chinese students who do well on their tests
and get high scores will have a better chance of getting into national key universities. Those who don’t do well
may have to go to regular universities or even miss out on getting into universities. The NMET has a big impact
on English language teaching and learning in secondary schools because it plays such an important role in
deciding where students go to college. In a lot of high schools, the last year of English class is mostly spent
getting ready for the NMET. This often includes activities that focus on tests, like doing mock exams over and
over, doing exercises that are meant to improve specific skills, and going over mistakes in detail.
There were numerous rounds of reforms of the NMET in China. And the current format of NMET is as follows.
Table 1 Test Format Of The 2025 Nmet (Pen And Aper)
Task
Input
Item Types
Raw
Score
Percentage
Listening
5 short
dialogues
3-option multiple choice
7.5
20%
5 dialogues or
monologues
3-option multiple choice
22.5
Reading
4 texts
4-option multiple choice
37.5
53.3%
1 text
filling 5 blanks from the given 7 choices
12.5
1 text cloze
4-option multiple-choice
15
1 text cloze
filling 10 blanks using the proper form of given word
15
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4164
Writing
practical writing
Short functional writing tasks (letters, notices,
speeches, etc.) with clear real-world purposes.
15
26.7%
continuation
writing
A narrative task where students continue a given
story opening while maintaining consistency in plot,
style and characterization.
25
Total
150
100%
The NMET is comprised of a national-wide written test in most provinces, and an oral test only in several
provinces. The NMET written tests are designed to comprehensively assess students’ English language abilities,
with a full score of 150 points. It mainly consists of three parts: listening comprehension, which evaluates
students’ ability to understand spoken English; reading comprehension, which measures their reading and
understanding skills of various English texts; and writing, which tests their writing proficiency in different styles
and topics. Regarding the oral test, it is not uniformly implemented across the country. In some provinces and
municipalities, the speaking ability of students is examined. However, currently, the results of the oral test are
not included in the total NMET score.
Review Method
This study is a review study on washback research on NMET. The inclusion criteria are the studies:
1. are journal articles;
2. are about washback study on NMET in China;
3. are published between 2016 to August June 2025;
4. contain empirical data;
5. have washback as one of the major focuses;
6. have the full text available online without payment.
The following databases are searched to find potential articles:
1. CNKI
2. WoS
3. Scopus
4. Google Scholar
In each of the databases, the following English and Chinese keywords are searched:
1. Washback + China
2. Backwash + China
3. Washback + Chinese
4. Backwash + Chinese
5. Washback + NMET
6. Backwash + National Matriculation English Test
The initial search gets 56 potential papers. Each article is subsequently assessed independently to determine its
inclusion or exclusion, using the criteria outlined above. Additionally, the reference lists of these papers were
examined to check for any relevant literature that might have been missed in the database searches. The final set
of 20 articles was then evaluated independently by the authors to identify themes that are relevant to this
research.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4165
Most studies on washback on NMET has focused predominantly on washback to teachers’ teaching and
washback to test-takers’ learning, which were two major themes identified in the reviewed studies. However, our
review uncovered other themes including products or outcomes of learning and direction of washback.
Therefore, this article presents a review of empirical research on the washback of NMET. We synthesize the
evidence on
(a) influence on teaching,
(b) influence on learning,
(c) influence on teaching or learning outcomes,
(d) direction of washback (positive/negative or mixed).
DISCUSSION
Research on the National Matriculation English Test (NMET) has generated a rich body of empirical evidence
that illuminates its influence on English education in China. Studies converge on the finding that the NMET
exerts a powerful but complex washback effect.
Influence on Teaching
A substantial body of research has examined how the NMET shapes English teaching in high schools in China.
These studies show that the NMET exerts a pervasive influence on classroom content, pedagogy, and outcomes,
though the extent and direction of washback vary across grade levels, reforms, teacher beliefs, and time. Four
interrelated themes emerge: teaching content and methods, reform-driven shifts, teacher beliefs as mediators,
and sustainability of washback.
Teaching Content and Methods
Research demonstrates that the NMET strongly determines what and how teachers teach. Dong (2018) revealed
that the intensity of washback grows progressively stronger as students approach the exam. In Grade 1 and 2,
teaching tends to follow textbooks and regular activities, with relatively weak and implicit influence from the
NMET. By Grade 3, however, instruction becomes highly exam-driven, dominated by mock tests and drilling.
Vocabulary, grammar, and reading, which are the most important parts of the test, get the most attention, while
speaking gets little. Zhang and Zhang (2020) also pointed out that most teachers think that the NMET controls
what happens in the classroom and how it happens. In practice, this means that teaching has to be very similar to
what the tests want, which often leads to teaching that is too focused on the tests and not enough on
communication skills.
Reform-Driven Shifts
Reforms to the NMET have tried to make it cover more areas, especially by adding listening and speaking.
Research on Shanghai’s listening-speaking reform demonstrates the advantages and drawbacks of change driven
by tests. After the reform, Hou (2018) found that teachers gave students more oral practice by adding more tasks
that required them to listen and speak. However, a lot of this practice was still focused on the test, using scripted
dialogues and test simulations instead of real communication activities. Zhang (2019) arrived at analogous
conclusions, noting that the incorporation of listening and speaking elements in the biannual NMET fostered
greater emphasis on oral competencies, yet remained predominantly focused on examination drills. These
findings suggest that test reforms can redirect instructional focus to previously neglected competencies; however,
systemic limitations and entrenched examination cultures impede significant pedagogical innovation.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4166
Teacher Beliefs as Mediators
A multitude of studies underscore that washback does not arise spontaneously from test design but is shaped by
educators’ beliefs. Liang et al. (2025) demonstrated that teachers’ beliefs significantly mediate the washback
effects of high-stakes examinations on teaching practices, even though such beliefs are widely recognized as
difficult to change. Positive washback occurred on teaching practices when teachers’ beliefs aligned with NMET
assessment goals, whereas negative or insignificant washback emerged when beliefs and the test were
misaligned. This highlights the critical importance of teachers’ perception in shaping washback and suggests that
any reform intended to produce favorable results must consider both teachers’ beliefs and test design.
Sustainability of Washback
Research shows that washback effects are not static and can change over time. Huang and Zeng (2025) examined
the sustainability of washback after NMET reforms, finding that teachers’ initial enthusiasm often diminished as
the pressures of exam preparation resurfaced. Reforms led to significant short-term changes, but their long-term
viability was uncertain, heavily dependent on institutional support, teacher autonomy, and policy coherence.
This highlights the difficulty of attaining lasting pedagogical change solely through assessment reform.
In summary, these studies show that the NMET has a big but inconsistent effect on teaching. It makes teachers
focus on the test, and as the test date gets closer, it gets stronger. It also changes what they teach to fit the skills
that will be tested. The reforms to the listening–speaking part of the test show that how teachers focus on
different things can change, but cultural and systemic factors limit how much teaching can really change. Most
importantly, teachers’ beliefs affect how washback works. They decide if the pressure of the test is used to help
students learn or if it becomes boring test-drilling routines.
Influence on Learning
NMET also has a big effect on students’ learning in China, in addition to how it affects teaching. Studies
consistently demonstrate that the examination not only influences the content of students’ studies but also
dictates their study methods, motivations, and perceptions of their own learning processes. The literature
emphasizes three interrelated aspects of NMET washback on learning: learning strategies, motivation, and
perceptions.
Learning Strategies
Studies reveal that the NMET channels students toward particular strategies. Dong, M. (2020), using structural
equation modeling, demonstrated that learners’ perceptions of the NMET strongly predict their choice of
learning practices, with more positive perceptions encouraging the adoption of structured approaches such as
study planning, monitoring, and review. Similarly, Dong and Wang (2025) found that when students have a
clearer understanding of the exam’s design and demands, they employ more construct-relevant strategies,
focusing on skills genuinely assessed by the test. However, when students misinterpret test demands, they resort
to test-wise strategies, such as rote memorization, mechanical drilling, and past-paper practice. Zhang (2021)
likewise reported that NMET preparation often pushes students toward surface-level strategies in extracurricular
learning. At the tertiary level, Zhang and Bournot-Trites (2021) found that while the NMET consolidates discrete
skills such as grammar and reading, its narrow scope leaves students underprepared for academic and
communicative tasks in university. Collectively, these studies suggest that the NMET drives intensive learning
strategies, but often at the cost of breadth and communicative competence.
Motivation
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4167
The NMET is also a powerful motivator of student effort, though largely through instrumental pathways. Dong
and Liu (2022) found that learners who viewed the NMET as highly important invested significantly more time
and energy into exam preparation. This demonstrates the exam’s role in channeling student persistence and
ensuring consistent effort. However, the quality of motivation is shaped by perceptions of difficulty. Dong, M.
(2020) reported that while manageable difficulty stimulates engagement, excessive difficulty discourages
sustained effort and deep learning. Thus, the NMET provides a double-edged motivational push: it guarantees
high levels of effort but narrows motivation to short-term exam performance, limiting intrinsic engagement with
English as a subject of broader personal or academic value.
Perceptions
Learners’ perceptions serve as the pivotal mechanism of washback that connects test design to learning outcomes.
Positive views of the NMET’s importance encourage systematic study habits, while negative views of it being
too hard make students less likely to adapt (Dong, M., 2020; Dong & Liu, 2022). Dong (2022) further illustrated
that contextual factors, including school status and classroom practices, influence these perceptions: students in
elite institutions, equipped with superior resources and teacher support, frequently regard the NMET as more
manageable, whereas those in less privileged schools perceive it as intimidating and overwhelming. Zhang
(2021) emphasized the significance of self-efficacy, demonstrating that test-takers’ confidence in their capacity
to self-regulate learning influences the conversion of perceptions into extracurricular English learning.
Additionally, perceptions change as the exam date approaches. For example, students who are getting closer to
the NMET start focusing more on exam-driven practices and less on more balanced learning. These results show
that perceptions are not the same for everyone; they depend on the situation and are shaped by both individual
psychology and systemic inequalities.
To sum up, these studies show that the NMET affects how students learn in strong but uneven ways. It directs
students toward organized study and consistent effort, but it also limits strategies to exam-specific techniques,
emphasizes instrumental motivation over intrinsic engagement, and exacerbates disparities influenced by school
context and exam proximity. Perceptions are the main thing that decides whether exam pressure leads to useful,
skill-relevant learning or to mindless drilling. The NMET makes sure that students study hard, but its washback
doesn’t always help them develop the skills they need for college and lifelong learning. For sustainable positive
washback to happen, reforms are needed that expand test constructs and improve students’ assessment literacy,
so that strategies, motivation, and perceptions can all work together to achieve meaningful language learning
outcomes beyond the test.
Influence on Learning Outcomes
Several studies have examined the NMET’s influence on learning outcomes, both at the secondary and tertiary
level. These studies explore the degree to which the NMET influences learners’ outcome, long-term language
acquisition, and readiness for higher education. Dong, M. (2020) conducted a quantitative analysis examining
the structural relationships between learners’ perceptions of the NMET, their learning practices, and their
outcomes. The results show that perceptions are an important mediator: students, who see the NMET as
important and manageable, are more likely to use systematic methods like planning and monitoring, which are
linked to better English learning outcomes. Negative perceptions, on the other hand, make preparation less
effective. Dong, L. Z. (2022) examined the “delayed” washback effect of the NMET on college students. The
research revealed that the test’s limited skill emphasis resulted in enduring deficiencies in learning. Students said
they weren’t ready for listening and speaking tasks when they got to college, but they did know a lot about
grammar and reading. This shows that not having listening on the NMET not only hurts learning in high school
but also limits results in college. This study showed how important test design is in the long run. Zhang (2024)
emphasizes the importance of perceptions by analyzing how high school students view the NMET’s influence on
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4168
their English learning outcomes. The study revealed that students linked the examination to both positive
outcomes (e.g., improved grammatical and vocabulary precision) and negative outcomes (e.g., limited oral
proficiency). Importantly, perceptions differed by home province, reflecting variations in exam format and local
educational contexts. Zhang said that the NMET needs to be changed so that it better fits with bigger educational
goals. This will make sure that the test results are more than just passing the test. Shi (2025) focused on the
predictive validity of the NMET by examining the correlation between NMET performance and subsequent
college English success. Shi (2025) revealed that although NMET scores exhibited a moderate correlation with
post-admission English performance, they did not serve as reliable indicators of the communicative competence
or academic literacy necessary for higher education. These results show that the skills needed for university
study don’t match up with the skills that NMET preparation teaches. This makes us question whether the test is a
good way to decide who gets into college.
In brief, these studies suggest that the NMET has a strong but uneven influence on learning outcomes. NMET
enhances discrete skills such as grammar, vocabulary, and reading comprehension, and motivates students to
achieve higher scores. However, its narrow construct coverage limits the development of listening and
communicative abilities, leading to gaps that persist into tertiary education. Moreover, the NMET’s predictive
power for university success remains contested, with evidence indicating that it only partially reflects the skills
necessary for academic contexts. Overall, the literature demonstrates that while the NMET drives measurable
outcomes, it also narrows learning and creates misalignments between secondary preparation and
higher-education demands.
Direction of Washback
One of the central concerns in washback research is the direction of washback, whether test influence promotes
positive pedagogical and learning outcomes, results in negative narrowing effects, or produces a mixture of both.
Studies on the NMET reforms illustrate the complex and often context-dependent nature of washback direction.
Positive Washback
Several studies provide evidence of positive washback. Hou (2018), in his investigation of the listening and
speaking test reform in Zhejiang’s NMET, reported that most teachers evaluated the reform favorably. The new
test components encouraged greater attention to listening and speaking in the classroom, skills that had
traditionally been marginalized in exam preparation. Interestingly, suburban schools appeared more responsive
to the reform than urban schools, though no significant differences were found between school levels. Liang et al.
(2025) further underscored the role of teacher beliefs in determining washback direction. They found that when
teachers’ beliefs aligned with the objectives of the NMET, they were more likely to integrate authentic materials,
multimedia resources, and communicative tasks into their teaching, thereby generating positive washback.
These findings suggest that test reforms can lead to constructive changes when they expand the tested construct
and when teachers perceive their goals as valid and achievable.
Negative Washback
At the same time, research reveals negative or narrowing consequences of NMET reform. Yu (2020), in his study
of new writing tasks introduced in Zhejiang’s NMET, identified both the presence and the limitations of
washback. While the new tasks aimed to broaden students’ writing skills, many teachers and learners reduced
their preparation to practicing test formats and drilling sample answers. This overemphasis on format and
scoring criteria constrained the development of authentic writing competence and highlights how high-stakes
contexts can undermine the intended pedagogical benefits of reform.
Mixed Washback
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4169
Other studies present a more nuanced picture of mixed washback. Chen et al. (2018) investigated the
“twice-a-year” NMET reform in Zhejiang, focusing on its impact on teachers’ instruction, students’ learning, and
the alignment between expected and actual effects. Findings indicated that while the reform reduced test anxiety
and improved student motivation, exam-oriented practices remained entrenched, particularly in less advantaged
schools. The study points to a mismatch between intended policy goals and classroom realities, producing a
blend of positive and negative washback. Similarly, Zhang (2024) explored senior high school students’
perceptions of NMET washback on their English learning outcomes. Students reported that exam preparation
improved their grammar, vocabulary, and accuracy, but simultaneously limited the development of oral and
communicative skills.
In conclusion, these studies demonstrate that the direction of NMET washback is rarely unidirectional. Positive
effects can be seen when reforms make constructs more comprehensive and when teachers’ beliefs align with test
goals, as seen in the listening and speaking components (Hou, 2018) or belief-driven pedagogical innovation
(Liang et al., 2025). When studying for exams turns into mindless drilling and format practice, negative effects
occurred, especially with the new writing tasks (Yu, 2020). Nonetheless, the outcomes are generally ambivalent:
reforms alleviate certain pressures and expand the instructional focus, yet the entrenched examination culture
continues to impede substantive changes (Chen et al., 2018; Zhang, 2024). These finding underscores that
washback direction ought to be regarded as dynamic, context-dependent, and shaped by stakeholder beliefs and
resources, rather than as uniformly positive or negative.
CONCLUSION
This review of empirical studies regarding the washback effects of the NMET illustrates that this high-stakes
assessment exerts a significant yet complex impact on English education. Finding suggests that the NMET
affects how teachers teach, often limiting what they can teach to skills that will help test-takers pass the test. On
the other hand, reforms that involve listening and speaking can have a bigger impact on how teachers teach.
However, for these changes to endure, educators must have faith in them, and educational institutions must
endorse them. At the learner level, the NMET encourages organized preparation and ongoing effort, mainly
through instrumental motivation. Strategies are often limited to rote practice and behaviors that are focused on
passing tests. Learner perceptions serve as a crucial intermediary: when students perceive the exam as significant
and achievable, they engage in more adaptive practices; conversely, excessive difficulty inhibits effort or leads to
superficial strategies. In terms of learning outcomes, getting ready for the NMET improves specific skills like
grammar and reading, but it doesn’t help with listening and communication skills, which raises concerns about
how well it prepares students for college-level work. The exam’s predictive validity for university performance
is only partial, which shows that NMET scores shouldn’t be the only thing used to decide who gets in. The
literature indicates that the direction of washback follows a dynamic and context-dependent pattern: while
positive washback is evident when reforms broaden construct coverage and when teacher beliefs align with test
objectives, negative effects persist in the form of mechanical drilling and exam-centered instruction. In most
cases, washback emerges as mixed, reflecting the tension between intended reforms and entrenched exam
culture.
Overall, this body of research suggests that while NMET ensure seriousness of study and measurable short-term
outcomes, they also constrain pedagogy, reinforce inequalities, and inadequately prepare learners for higher
education. To achieve sustainable positive washback, reforms must move beyond test design to address teacher
cognition, learner perceptions, and systemic educational support. Future researches are required to adopt
longitudinal and multi-contextual approaches to capture the evolving nature of washback, examine how reforms
are mediated by local conditions, and explore strategies for bridging the gap between exam preparation and the
broader goals of English education.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4170
REFERENCES
1. Huang, L., & Zeng, J. (2025). Sustainability of washback effects: a longitudinal study of China’s
twice-yearly NMET reform. Language Testing in Asia, 15(1), 19.
2. Alderson, J. C., & Wall, D. (1993). Does washback exist? Applied linguistics, 14(2), 115-129.
3. Bailey, K. M. (1996). Working for washback: A review of the washback concept in language testing.
Language testing, 13(3), 257-279.
4. Chen, Y. J., Cai, J. T., & Hu, L. P. (2018). A study on the washback effect of the new reform model of
the foreign language Gaokao. Foreign Language Research, (1), 79-85.
5. Cheng, X., Zhang, S. L., & Qian, J. Y. (2021). A study on the washback effect of the new listening and
speaking test in the Shanghai Gaokao. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, (3), 83-94.
6. Dong, L. Z. (2017). A study on the washback effect of the listening test in the National College
Entrance Examination. Foreign Language Testing and Teaching, (1), 42-49.
7. Dong, L. Z. (2022). The "delayed" washback effect of the Gaokao English test without a listening
section: A correlation analysis based on Gaokao English scores and CET-4 scores of college students in
a regular university. Journal of Yulin University, (6), 105-109.
8. Dong, M. (2020). Structural relationship between learners’ perceptions of a test, learning practices, and
learning outcomes: A study on the washback mechanism of a high-stakes test. Studies in Educational
Evaluation, 64, 100824.
9. Dong, M. (2022). Do school status and classroom English learning practices influence Chinese learners’
perceptions of a high-stakes English test?. Language Testing in Asia, 12(1), 28.
10. Dong, M. X. (2018). A study on the washback effect of the National College Entrance Examination on
senior high school English classroom teaching. Basic Foreign Language Education, 20(2), 25-32.
11. Dong, M., & Liu, X. (2022). Impact of learners’ perceptions of a high-stakes test on their learning
motivation and learning time allotment: A study on the washback mechanism. Heliyon, 8 (12), e11910.
12. Dong, M., & Wang, B. (2025). Does students’ understanding of test designs and demands of a
high-stakes test influence their learning practices: a washback study. Language Testing in Asia, 15(1),
17.
13. Green, A. (2007a). IELTS washback in context: Preparation for academic writing in higher education
(Vol. 25). Cambridge University Press.
14. Green, A. (2007b). Washback to learning outcomes: A comparative study of IELTS preparation and
university pre‐sessional language courses. Assessment in Education, 14(1), 75-97.
15. Hou, Y. P. (2018). A study on the washback effect of the reform of the listening and speaking test in the
foreign language Gaokao. Computer-Assisted Foreign Language Education, (5), 23-29.
16. Liang, Y., Siraj, S., & Lo, Y. Y. (2025). Exploring washback processes in language teaching through
teachers’ beliefs in the Chinese National Matriculation English Test (NMET). Humanities and Social
Sciences Communications, 12(1), 1-11.
17. Shi, C. (2025). A Case Study of National Matriculation English Test Validity in Predicting Students’
English Performance in College. SAGE Open, 15(2), 21582440251331196.
18. Yu, C. (2020). The Washback of the New Writing Tasks in China’s National Matriculation English
Test. English Language Teaching, 13(1), 99-111.
19. Zhang, H. (2024). The washback of the National Matriculation English Test on senior high school
English learning outcomes: do test takers from different provinces think alike?. Language Testing in
Asia, 14(1), 14.
20. Zhang, H., & Bournot-Trites, M. (2021). The long-term washback effects of the National Matriculation
English Test on college English learning in China: Tertiary student perspectives. Studies in Educational
Evaluation, 68, 100977.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 4171
21. Zhang, H., & Zhang, W. X. (2020). The washback effect of the English subject in Gaokao on senior
high school English teaching from teachers’ perspective: Based on a large-scale national
survey. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 171(3), 36.
22. Zhang, J. (2021). A moderated mediation analysis of the relationship between a high-stakes English test
and test takers’ extracurricular English learning activities. Language Testing in Asia, 11(1), 5.
23. Zhang, R. (2019). An analysis of the washback effect of the listening and speaking test in the Shanghai
College Entrance Examination under the new Gaokao background: A case study of School J. Foreign
Language Testing and Teaching, (4), 47-53.
