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ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
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Socio-Economic Conditions of Female Agricultural Labour in India
“A Case Study of Andhra Pradesh”
1Dr. D. Rajyalakshmi, 2Prof. K. Madhu Babu
1Head Department of History, Government Degree College, Avanigadda, Krishna (Dt). Andhra Predesh
2Professor, Department of Economics, Acharya Nagarjuna University, A.P -522510
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000366
Received: 20 October 2025; Accepted: 27 October 2025; Published: 12 November 2025
INTRODUCTION
Women’s role in economic development, in most countries of the world, cannot be undermined. In the third
world countries, especially, where agricultures still constitutes the main source of livelihood and the main area
of work for most people, women’s contribution is quite high. The strategies undertaken for the development of
agriculture in these economies were more concerned with the increase in productivity through mechanization of
the agricultural production process and neglected the sex specific composition of the rural labour force.
Overtime, men gained from the technical change that came about in agriculture while women were marginalized.
They remained mostly as low paid casual labourers. India’s female population, as per 2011 census, is 586.46
million and constitutes 48.46 percent of the total population. Nearly 75 percent of the female population in rural
and mostly belong to the subsistence sector. In agriculture women mostly undertake labour intensive and
drudgery prone activities like transplanting, weeding, harvesting and post harvest operations. They also work in
the allied fields such as animal husbandry, forestry, plantation, fishing etc. More often, the economic activities
undertaken by the rural women on their own farm or in animal husbandry get disguised as household work and
remain unreported. Agricultural work is seasonal in nature. During the off season women in agriculture have to
struggle hard to find alternate source of income.
The Indian caste system divides society into closed, hereditary groups ranked by ritual status. Dalits stand at the
bottom of the hierarchy and in fact outside the varna system. Dalit women agricultural labourers are the most
exploited and oppressed class in rural hierarchy in India. They were victims of not only economic exploitation
but also social discrimination. If they failed to bow to the tunes of the masters, they were beaten up and tortured.
Hence, in this background the empirical, scientific, inductive, factor finding investigational study among Dalit
women agricultural labourers to work participation rate, wage and productivity trends and the determinates of
wages and productivity of labour in the rural economy of Andhra Pradesh state in India is an important
phenomenon.
Keywords: Women labourers, Scheduled Caste (Dalit), productivity, exploited, wage and Discrimination)
Importance of the Study
The current research seems to be attempting to explain income and productivity patterns among Dalit women
agricultural labourers in Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, as well as their challenges and potential. Guntur district is
situated in a coastline region. A lot of studies have been conducted in the Guntur district's agriculture sector.
However, no research has been done among Dalit women agricultural labourers in the study region. In order to
examine the Dalit women's agricultural labour concerns, empirical research is required.
Scope of the Study
The study is limited to the analysis of the socioeconomic status of Dalit Women agricultural labor in Guntur
District of Andhra Pradesh. The study area characters by semi-developed agricultural region in which dry land,
crops and irrigated crops are growing. The study focuses on the socio-economic conditions and the factors
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ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
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influencing the poverty among female agricultural labour in the selected district. The study is carried on basing
on 320 households of Dalit Women agricultural labour.
Statement of the Problem
In India's rural hierarchy, Dalit women agricultural labourers are the most exploited and mistreated. Prior to the
Declaration of Independence, they were in a similar situation. Not only were they exploited economically, but
they were also subjected to social prejudice. They were flogged and tormented if they did not bend to the masters'
songs. The landowners frequently succeeded in capturing these impoverished individuals in their net and
converting them into virtual slaves by extending modest sums to them. Agricultural labourers are the poorest
and resource-starved class in rural regions, despite the fact that their status has improved to some degree during
the previous 75 years of independence.
Need for the Study
Women are the backbone of rural India's economy, as well as Andhra Pradesh's. Women work in a variety of
jobs to make ends meet, and the bulk of Dalit Agriculture labour women rely on agriculture, which is India's
largest unorganised sector. Many of these workers are landless and from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. The
position and status of women are transformed in the agricultural social transformation process as a result of
agriculture technology. Women from every area, ethnicity, class, and caste are affected differently by the
disaggregated pattern of development. In light of this, it's important to look at the position of women at various
stages of rural transition as a result of technical and agricultural progress. Aside from a few studies here and
there, no real research has been done to explain this societal phenomena.So there is a need to make an attempt
to study the Dalit women Agriculture labour Guntur District of Andhra Pradesh. So, it is proposed to make a
study with the following objectives.
Objectives of the Study
The present study is conducted in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh. The study takes the following as its
objectives:
To study the Socio-economic conditions of Dalit women Agriculture labourers in Guntur District of Andhra
Pradesh.
To understand the composition of income, expenditure, assets and liabilities of the sample Dalit women
agricultural labour households in the study area.
Limitation Of the Study
The subject selected for the detailed study has a fairly wide scope, particularly in Dalit women agriculture
labourers. But due to time and financial constraints, it is obviously not possible for an individual researcher to
cover and give justice to all aspects of Economic condition of Dalit women Agricultural Labour in the study area
during 2022-23.
Methodology and Sample Size
The present study is based on the Primary Data as well as Secondary Data. Guntur district of the Coastal region
of Andhra Pradesh has been selected for the purpose of the present study which has been divided into four
revenue divisions based on criteria of socio-economic conditions of the district. Multi-stage random sampling
method has been used for selecting the sample respondents.
The scheduled caste population is spread all over Andhra Pradesh. The selection is based on following criteria:
First stage, Andhra Pradesh state has been selected purposively. In the second stage, four revenue divisions have
been considered for the study.
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Third stage, from each revenue division, two mandals (8) have been chosen by using stratified Random Sampling
Method based on the highest SC women agricultural labourers.
Finally, in each mandal two villages (16) are selected by following the same method. From each village, 20
Scheduled Caste women agricultural labourers were selected. Therefore as a whole 320 samples were collected
by using Stratified Random Sampling Technique. Structured interview schedules have been used to collect the
primary data from the sample respondents.
Table No. 1 Distribution of Sample Size
Sl.
No.
Name of the
Mandal
Name of the village SC population No. of
Respondents
Male Female Total
1 Sattenapalle
Nandigama 964 1597 2561 20
2 Lakkarajugarlapadu 990 1001 1991 20
3 Thullur Mandadam 1580 1554 3134 20
4 Thullur 1197 1164 2361 20
5 Amruthalur Mulpur 1537 1508 3045 20
6 Amruthalur 1229 1153 2382 20
7 Ponnur Mulukuduru 1020 1097 2117 20
8 Chintalapudi 1040 1072 2112 20
9 Narasaraopet Ellamanda 1964 1817 3781 20
10 Mulakalur 1249 1209 2458 20
11 Edlapadu Edlapadu 1453 1394 2847 20
12 Thimmapuram 1202 1270 2472 20
13 Gurazala Gurazala 1781 1906 3687 20
14 Madugula 610 654 1264 20
15 Dachepalle Nadikudi 1284 1282 2566 20
16 Dachepalle 872 851 1723 20
Total 19972 20529 40501 320
Source: Compiled secondary data from district hand book of Guntur, Census 2011. & 2018 (provisional)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSETIONS
Chi-Square Test:
Chi-square test is applied to test the significant difference between observed frequency and expected frequency
under certain assumptions such as the uniform distribution of objects in a specific category.
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Formula
Σ Oi is larger enough
Where;
Oi = observed frequency
Ei = expected frequency
Frequency of Payment
H0 : There is no frequency of wage payment is paid through cash to the respondents among the revenue division
wise in various spells.
H1: There is a frequency of wage payment is paid through cash to the respondents among the revenue division
wise in various spells.
They felt flexible as they are paid simultaneously after the completing of work. From the above analysis, it is
clear that most of the payments are made after completion of work. The Pearson Chi-square value is 22.102 at
0.001 significant levels.
Table No.2
Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 22.102a 6 .001
Likelihood Ratio 22.748 6 .001
Linear-by-Linear Association 17.786 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 320
a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 19.25.
Source: Field data.
From the above table it can be interpreted that, there is a difference in the frequency of wage payment made to
the respondents in the study area, since chi-square value is 001<0.05. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and
alternative hypothesis is accepted and it is concluded that there is a difference of wage payments made to the
respondents.
Difference of Payment between Men and Women.
H0 : There is no difference in payment of wages between men and women in the agricultural work in the study
area.
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H1 : There is a difference in payment of wages between men and women in the agricultural work in the study
area.
Table No.3.
Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 6.753a 3 .080
Likelihood Ratio 6.577 3 .087
Linear-by-Linear Association .155 1 .693
N of Valid Cases 320
a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 14.00.
Source: Field data.
As of various divisions, more than 70 per cent of the respondents have been differed between men and women
on payment basis. It shows that women are neglected at work basis on payment basis after fulfillment of entrusted
agricultural activity. The Pearson Chi-square value is 6.753 at 0.080 significant levels. From the above table it
can be interpreted that, There is a difference in payment of wages between men and women in the study area,
since chi-square value is 080>0.05. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is accepted
and it is concluded that there is a difference in payment of wages between men and women in the study area.
Amount paid differed per day to the Respondents:
Table No. 4.
Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 13.675a 6 .033
Likelihood Ratio 13.792 6 .032
Linear-by-Linear Association .029 1 .864
N of Valid Cases 320
a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 14.00.
Source: Field data.
H0 : The payment of wages to the respondents are not equal among the revenue division wise.
H1 : The payment of wages to the respondents are equal among the revenue division wise.
The Pearson Chi-square value is 13.675 at 0.033 significant levels. From the above table it can be interpreted
that, The payment of wages to the respondents are not equal among revenue division wise in the study area,
since chi-square value is 033<0.05. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is accepted
and it concluded that the payment of wages to the respondents are differed.
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Income sufficient for your livelihood
H0 : The Income level of the respondents insufficient for their livelihood among revenue division wise.
H1 : The Income level of the respondents are sufficient for their livelihood among revenue division wise.
Table No. 5.
Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 4.457a 3 .216
Likelihood Ratio 4.394 3 .222
Linear-by-Linear Association 2.316 1 .128
N of Valid Cases 320
a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 13.75.
Source: Field data.
The Pearson Chi-square value is 4.457 at 0.216 significant levels.From the above table it can be interpreted that,
there is insufficient income for their livelihood among revenue division wise in the study area, since chi-square
value is 0.216>0.05. Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted and alternative hypothesis is rejected and it
concluded that there is insufficient income for their livelihood.
Type of problem faced by the Dalit Women
Table no .6 entails the type of problems faced by the Women dalit agricultural labourer from the Co-workers /
Owner.
Table No.6 Type of Problem Faced by the Women Dalit Agricultural Labourer
Type of problem faced Revenue division Total
Guntur Tenali Narasaraopet Gurazala
Sometimes they are using abusing 5
(6.3)
8
(10.0)
8
(10.0)
6
(7.5)
27
(8.4)
Sometimes they are making social distance 3
(3.8)
4
(5.0)
7
(8.8)
4
(5.0)
18
(5.6)
Workplace harassment 5
(6.3)
2
(2.5)
3
(3.8)
4
(5.0)
14
(4.4)
Gender discrimination 5
(6.3)
2
(2.5)
2
(2.5)
3
(3.8)
12
(3.8)
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Not applicable 62
(77.5)
64
(80.0)
60
(75.0)
63
(78.8)
249
(77.8)
Total 80
(100.0)
80
(100.0)
80
(100.0)
80
(100.0)
320
(100.0)
Source: Compiled from collected data.
Out of total 320, 249 (77.8 per cent) do not face any problem, followed by 27 (8.4 per cent), 18 (5.6 per cent),
14 (4.4 per cent) and 12 (3.8 per cent) are abused, making social distance, workplace harassment and gender
discrimination respectively.
Table No. 6. (a)
Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 6.569a 12 .885
Likelihood Ratio 6.368 12 .896
Linear-by-Linear Association .043 1 .836
N of Valid Cases 320
a. 12 cells (60.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 3.00.
Source: Field data.
Apart from this, there is a description of various divisions. In Guntur division, out of 80, 5 (6.3 per cent) opined
that sometimes they are abused, 5 (6.3 per cent) faced workplace harassment, 5 (6.3 per cent) have gender
discrimination and only 3 (3.8 per cent) facing social distance. In Tenali division, out of 80, 8 (10.0 per cent)
opined that sometimes they are abused, 4 (5.0 per cent) facing social distance, 2 (2.5 per cent) faced workplace
harassment and 2 (2.5 per cent) have gender discrimination.
In Narasaraopet division, out of 80, 8 (10.0 per cent) opined that sometimes they are abused, 7 (8.8 per cent)
facing social distance, 3 (3.8 per cent) faced workplace harassment and 2 (2.5 per cent) have gender
discrimination. In Gurazala division, out of 80, 6 (7.5 per cent) opined that sometimes they are abused, 4 (5.0
per cent) facing social distance, 4 (5.0 per cent) faced workplace harassment and 3 (3.8 per cent) have gender
discrimination.
It also absorbed in the various revenue division wise that few of them got exploited by the respondents i.e.
making social distance, harassment, Gender discrimination, abusing etc. The Pearson Chi-square value is 6.569
at 0.885 significant levels.
Expenses incurred on non-food items
H0 : There is no huge expenses incurred on non-food items per month by the respondents among revenue
division wise.
H1 : There is a huge expenses incurred on non-food items per month by the respondents among revenue
division wise.
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Table No.7.
Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 5.822a 9 .758
Likelihood Ratio 5.712 9 .768
Linear-by-Linear Association .698 1 .403
N of Valid Cases 320
a. 4 cells (25.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.25.
Source: Field data.
From the above table it can be interpreted that, there is less expenditure made on the non-food items per month
in the study area, since chi-square value is 0.758>0.05. Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted and alternative
hypothesis is rejected and it concluded that there is more expenditure incurred on the non-food items in the study
area.
MAJOR FINDINGS
Following are the various findings:
It is found out that the most of the dalit women agricultural labourers are of teenage group and early working
age group. Few women are from productive ages.
Dalit women agricultural labourers prefer to do agriculture due to poverty and to meet their daily needs and;
their family members didn’t send them for works.
It can be noticed that more than 70 per cent land owner show difference between men and women on payment
basis. Apart from this, they do not get satisfied from the earned income which is very less between Rs.200 and
Rs.300 on daily basis.
Approximately, 50 per cent of the respondents work for 201 to 250 days in a year. Therefore, they are ideal in
remaining days as there is unproductive season or no other works to do except agricultural in rural areas. They
are strictly dependent on agricultural activities whole year.
It can also be noticed that most of the income earned is spent by the labourer is on non-food items. Thus, they
could not able to save any amount for future needs.
The dalit women agricultural labourers consider that acquiring the loans from the money lenders is flexible,
convenient and in meeting their emergency needs. On the other hand, they are levied high rate of interest where
they could not able to repay their debts. Hence, they do not have proper awareness about Government schemes.
There are no extra facilities for female labourer at work place such as crèche, toilet facility.
From the research analysis, it can also be pointed out that more than 50 per cetn do not have proper hygienic
water facility and procuring through common well, public taps, tanks and hand pump.
Most of them work on seasonal basis as they do not have any other work available during unseasonal time as it
making them to be idle, raising debts, to meet basic needs and requirements, health and educational expenses
etc.
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They are not aware of labour acts like payment of wage act, 1936, payment of minimum wage act 1948, Child
labour Act 1986, maternity benefits Act 1979 etc.
SUGGESTIONS
On the basis of above findings, the study suggests following steps to improve the socio-economic conditions of
dalit women agricultural labourers who are mostly landless women for their livelihood is based on agriculture:
Small Ownership of land should also be ensured with due consideration to Dalit women on their access and
control over resources.
Technical, vocational and academic education should be provided to Dalit women by the State Government so
that they can implement it in agricultural activity for smooth functioning of system.
The discriminatory laws, traditional practices such as untouchability and dogmatism against Dalit women should
be abolished by providing them the social security.
Constitutional Dalit Commission should be established to safeguard and protect women rights with special
support centers for Dalit women.
Various Dalit women’s economic generation programs should be launched by the Government for their income
generation and self-reliance. Dalit women’s employment opportunities should be ensured.
Large awareness against caste discrimination should be escalated. Strict legal action should be implemented in
the case of caste discrimination and abuses.
More Self- Help Groups and meetings should be also encouraged so that dalit agricultural women can put up
their issues and allegations.
The Government should encourage small scale industries for Dalit women in the rural areas to improve their
economical position.
Massive awareness programmes should be encouraged by the Government regarding labour laws, minimum
wages act, child labour act etc.
It is suggested that agricultural women labourer should be ensured with other income earning source apart from
agriculture as they do not have any income during unseasonal period.
Besides government efforts, NGOs and other institutions should provide skills-training to Dalit women to help
them find alternative means of income.
Higher officials should aim young Dalit men and women to positively change their attitudes towards women
and violence against women.
Dalit women are losing their traditional jobs and households are suffering from poverty. NGOs need to take
interventions on livelihood development options related to the market value chain. Sector players need to provide
integrated development programmes for Dalit communities so that Dalit women can accumulate social,
economic and cultural capital.
Land reform programmes should be inaugurated with the objective of redistributing Government owned land
resources to the landless, targeting Dalit women residing in rural areas, to use it for agriculture to generate
income. Special subsidies should be made available for women from marginalized communities on agriculture
loans, land ownership tax etc.
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A group insurance scheme should be considered for the health insurance of women, particularly those employed
in hazardous and difficult occupations. Group insurance can also be considered in the context of natural
calamities.
Informal education should be make part to Dalit women.
Social Security schemes of creches, health care, maternity benefits for SC/ST women who engaged in
unorganized sector should be extended.
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, the present study evidences the ‘Socio-economic status of the dalit women agricultural labourers
in Guntur district. The entire study was represents that Scheduled Castes women agricultural labourers and it
was exploited section of the society. Their income is always been meager, resulting in poor living and heavy
indebtedness. It’s much worse for those who get agricultural work merely exist and do not live. The Dalit women
were deprived of education and they were not allowed to join schools because women were threatened,
particularly of the Scheduled Caste women that if they become literate they would become widows.
A large number of Dalit women are landless agricultural workers working for others on daily wages. With the
mechanization in agricultural operations most of them have lost their traditional occupation. The traditional
Indian society treated woman in general as an object of sex and sexual exploitation. It was an established fact
that woman was looked down in all aspects of life. Discrimination is showed towards her in all spheres in the
disguise of tradition and culture. Right values and ethics have to be inculcated in the minds of young Dalit
children. Human Rights education should be a compulsory component of the school and college curriculum that
is respecting every human, whatever be the caste, race, creed or sex, each belong to. Government has to create
more awareness among dalit women about their rights and privileges which can be approached through
information technology and should reach even to the remote rural citizen where large majority of Dalit women
population reside in our country.
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