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A Literature Review on Leadership and Cultural Evolution of
Adventism in East Africa Region
Nziku Herbert Ignas, BA, Prof. Musa O. Nyakora, PhD
Master of Arts in Leadership, Student at Adventist University of Africa, Nairobi, Kenya.
The HOD and Program Coordinator for PhD in Leadership, Adventist University of Africa, Kenya.
DOI:
https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000041
Received: 02 October 2025; Accepted: 08 October 2025; Published: 03 November 2025
ABSTRACT
This literature review synthesizes scholarly work on leadership evolution and cultural adaptation of the
Seventh-day Adventist Church in East Africa, a region now constituting 44% of the global denominational
membership. Employing a conceptual framework grounded in transformational leadership, contextual
theology, and feminist ecclesiology, the review critically analyzes the transition for missionary-led governance
to indigenous leadership models. It examines how the integration of local customs, language, and youth
engagement has been pivotal to the church’s growth, while also creating tensions with doctrinal purity. A
central finding is the persistent limitation of women’s leadership roles due to patriarchal norms and theological
conservatism, despite advocacy and training initiatives. While these adaptive strategies have propelled growth,
they also create tension with doctrine and underscore a significant gap between grassroots empowerment and
formal policy. The review identifies literature limitations, including geographic bias and lack of longitudinal
data. It concludes that the church’s future sustainability in East Africa hinges on developing more inclusive,
contextually sensitive models that actively promote gender equity and deeper cultural integration, areas which
also present key directions for future research.
Key words: Seventh-day Adventists, Leadership Evolution, Cultural Adaptation, Women’s leadership, Global
Denominational Membership.
INTRODUCTION
The rapid spread and cultural impact of the Seventh-day Adventist Church in East Africa has attracted much
scholarly inquiry. Within a century the Seventh-day Adventist Church in Africa has significantly expanded to
represent 44% of the global denominational membership. This growth reflects the interplay between faith,
culture, and leadership in the context of Africa (Miller, 2024; Andrews University & Gumbo, 2008). Factors
such as leadership styles, increased influence of local leaders, and the contribution of women in leadership
roles have influenced this rapid growth, not neglecting the cultural adaptation that combines local customs,
language, and the engagement of the youth (Molobi & Mzondi, 2022). This historical development, amidst
challenges, highlights the church’s contribution in painting religious identity and community development in
the East African region (Masengwe & Magwidi, 2021; Adogame & Spickard, 2010).
Despite this monumental expansion, the Seventh-day Adventist Church encounters leadership inclusivity and
cultural contextualization challenges. there is a limited inclusion of women in high ranks of leadership,
perhaps due to patriarchal norms and theological debates (Mwangi et al., 2023; Lagat, 2016: Granquist, 2020).
There are no official prohibitions, but cultural resistance or practical hindrances continue to surface (Kabugi,
2023; Frost, 2024), building antagonism between traditional interpretations and egalitarian theologies (Kariuki,
2024; Gatumu, 2019). The church’s engagement with local cultures is complex, since syncretism conflicts with
biblical doctrines (Andrews University & Gumbo, 2008; Agadjanian, 2025). These gaps cause ill
representation, members alienation, and challenge to mission growth (Mwandayi, 2023; Mupangwa &
Chirongoma, 2020).
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This literature review adopts a conceptual model to analyze the relationships of leadership evolution, cultural
adaptation, and gender dynamics in the Seventh-day Adventist Church. It is anchored in transformational
leadership, contextual theology, and feminist ecclesiology theories (Phiri & Chitando, 2023;Nkomo &
Ngambi, 2009; Nwoko & Igbokwe, 2023). It purposes to critically scrutinize the unfolding of leadership in the
Seventh-day Adventist Church in East Africa, highlighting changes in leadership styles, the influence of local
leaders, and the women’s role. The cultural adaptation strategies and historical progress are also explored,
identifying major milestones, challenges, and growth patterns. The review fills the existing knowledge gaps
and informs strategies for inclusive and culturally relevant church leadership by addressing these objectives
(Sanou, 2024; Kabugi, 2023; Masengwe & Magwidi, 2021). It applies a qualitative synthesis of scholarly
literature, with a focus on peer-reviewed articles, dissertations, and case studies relevant to the Seventh-day
Adventist Church in East Africa. Studies addressing leadership, gender, cultural adaptation, and historical
development within the church are prioritized as inclusion criteria. The organization and interpretation of
findings are underpinned by analytical models from missiology, gender literature, and leadership theory,
structured to reflect the themes of leadership evolution, cultural integration, and historical context (Famorot,
2023; Wakahiu & Keller, 2011" Wakahiu & Salvaterra, 2012).
Statement of the Problem
This literature review synthesizes literature on the Seventh-day Adventist Church in East Africa, examining
leadership evolution and underscoring a shift towards local styles and the complexity of women's roles. It also
analyzes the church’s cultural adaptation by integrating local customs and language and youth engagement.
The church’s historical development reflects milestones, growth patterns, and challenges. The findings cast
light on the dynamic intertwining of faith, culture, and leadership, providing a base for understanding the
church’s unique progress in the region and for informing future ecclesiastical strategies and research.
Specific Objectives
The specific objectives of this review are to evaluate existing knowledge on leadership within the Seventh-day
Adventist Church in East Africa, benchmark the current approaches to cultural adaptation, identify and
synthesize research findings on women’s role in church leadership, compare milestones, challenges, and
growth patterns documented in the development of the church, and deconstruct the influence of local
leadership styles and youth engagement on the church’s growth and sustainability.
Methodology of Literature Selection
Systematic searches were conducted across PubMed and Google Scholar databases using terms related to the
Seventh-day Adventist Church in East Africa, including “leadership evolution,” “changes in leadership styles,”
“influence of local leaders,” “role of women in leadership,” “cultural adaptation,” and “challenges and growth
patterns.” The criteria for inclusion/exclusion were papers (journals, articles, books, dissertations, and case
studies) from the years 1900 to 2025. Citation chaining (backward and forward) was conducted. 109 papers
were relevant, out of which 50 were found to be highly relevant.
LITERATURE REVIEW
This comprehensive literature review will encompass the descriptive summary of the studies, critical analysis
and synthesis, thematic review of literature, chronological review of literature, agreement and divergence
across studies, theoretical and practical implications, limitations of the literature, gaps and future research
directions, and overall synthesis and conclusion.
Descriptive Summary of the Studies
This section summarizes the studies on the Seventh-day Adventist Church in East Africa, focusing on
leadership evolution, women’s role in leadership, cultural adaptation strategies, historical development, and the
influence of local leaders. The reviewed literature encompasses a vast array of qualitative and mixed-methods
research, with a primary focus on East African regions such as Kenya, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe, with various
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comparative insights from other regions. This synthesis has the relevancy for the understanding of how local
leaders and cultural factors shape the church’s evolution and the role of gender and youth engagement
compounds with ecclesiastical development.
Leadership evolution
The evolution of leadership within the Seventh-day Adventist Church has been marked by significant
organizational and cultural shifts, reflecting broader changes in church governance and contextual adaptation.
Scholars concur that in East Africa leadership has evolved under the influence of sociocultural, political, and
theological factors, with a steady but uneven shift towards more inclusive leadership frameworks (Sanou,
2024; Lagat, 2016; Wakahiu & Salvaterra, 2012). While studies highlighted persistent patriarchal leadership
systems that maintain male dominance despite some empowerment initiatives (Kabugi, 2023; Kariuki, 2024;
Kwaramba & Dreyer, 2019), others underscore the impact of leadership training and transformational
leadership models in enhancing change and capacity building among women leaders (Wakahiu & Keller, 2011;
Wakahiu & Salvaterra, 2021; Ngunjiri, 2006). This signals that there are significant changes of attitudes among
the leaders towards more inclusivity in the church’s leadership.
Thorough examination of literature reveals both strengths and weaknesses in different respects across various
scholars on this matter. On one hand there are insightful data provided by some studies on leadership styles
transformation within the Seventh-day Adventist Church, underscoring the shift from missionary dominance to
local leadership models, incorporating indigenous cultural elements (Sanou, 2023; Masengwe & Magwidi,
2021). The amalgamation of social, cultural, and political factors allows a deep understanding of leadership
dynamics in East Africa (Sanou, 2024). On the other hand, the prevalence of qualitative descriptive research
designs limits the ability of generalization of findings across the territory. Various studies don’t have
longitudinal data to systematically track the evolution of leadership over time (Kabugi, 2023). Additionally,
there is inadequate empirical analysis of how leadership changes influence church growth and sustainability
quantitatively (Sanou, 2024).
The subject of leadership evolution was treated by scholars with differing standpoints, causing both convergent
and divergent conclusions. Most studies agree that leadership in East African churches has emerged from
foreign missionary control to local leadership with adapted leadership styles in response to cultural contexts
(Sanou, 2024; Masengwe & Magwidi, 2021). They further concur that leadership development programs,
particularly for women, have enhanced shifts toward transformational and servant leadership frameworks
(Wakahiu & Keller, 2011; Wakahiu & Salvaterra, 2012; Ngunjiri, 2006). However, there are those that diverge
regarding the extent of leadership change; some underscore significant development in leadership inclusivity
(Wakahiu & Keller, 2011), others observe patriarchal structures that hinder genuine evolution (Phaliso, 2012;
Agadjanian, 2024). These differences are possibly due to variations in denominational traditions, resistance
levels to change, and the scope of leadership programs. Studies that focus on grassroots leadership show more
development than organizational church assessment.
Women’s Roles in Church Leadership
The participation of women in leadership roles within the Seventh-day Adventist Church is a complex issue
influenced by historical, cultural, and theological factors. Studies record outstanding barriers to women’s full
participation in church leadership, including lack of ordination, cultural patriarchy, and institutional resistance
(Kabugi, 2023; Lagat, 2026; Mupangwa & Chirongoma, 2020). While a considerable number of studies
reported positive trends in women’s empowerment through training, empowerment, advocacy, and theological
reinterpretation supporting gender equality (Andrews University & Simankane, 2010; Ngunjiri & Christo-
Baker, 2012; Wakahiu & Salvaterra, 2012), 24% of the reviewed studies noted the complex negotiation women
undertake within the patriarchal and cultural frameworks to gain leadership legitimacy (Frost, 2022; Mhando
et al., 2018; Mapuranga, 2013). For instance, in Botswana contexts, empirical studies note positive attitudes
towards women’s empowerment (Andrews University & Simankane, 2010). Though this may be associated
with the dominance of women in church membership in Botswana, who assume almost all leadership roles in
the church since men are limited in number.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
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Research is consistent in underscoring the underrepresentation, challenges, and gradual empowerment of
women in church leadership roles. Patriarchal structures, cultural norms, and theological debates emerge as
inhibitors of women's ordination and leadership. Initiatives to empower women and leadership training
programs are also documented (Agadjanian, 2024; Kabugi, 2023; Ngunjiri & Christo-Baker, 2012; Chitando,
2023; Frost, 2024; Frost, 2022; Aringo & Njenga, 2022; Dassah & Nonterah, 2025; De Jager et al., 2023;
Famorot, 2023b; Graves, 2024; Kebede, 2024; Masengwe & Dube, 2024; Mujinga, 2020; Munamati, 2023;
Muriithi, 2000; Sherley Krei, 2024). All these findings indicate an evolving yet contested landscape with
arguments for inclusivity policies, theological interpretation, and leadership development.
Generally, there is a broad understanding that women are underrepresented in formal church leadership roles
across denominations, as highlighted before; however, there are divergent perspectives, in which some
denominations have greater acceptance and empowerment of women in church leadership roles, with
Pentecostal churches leading in allowing women to assume prominent leadership (Mhando et al., 2018; Frost,
2024; Mapuranga, 2013). In contrast, some studies highlight the persistent resistance due to cultural patriarchy
and theological interpretations opposing women’s leadership (Lagat, 2016; Kariuki, 2024; Agadjanian, 2024).
These differences stem from denominational theology, cultural contexts, and levels and organizational
conservatism. While Pentecostal and other African-initiated churches offer more leadership opportunities for
women, mainstream churches maintain stricter policies.
In spite of these strengths, studies note a persistent divide between policy and practice, with many churches
missing formal mechanisms for women’s ordination or leadership inclusivity (Kabugi, 2023; Mupangwa &
Chirongoma, 2020). Systemic marginalization is reflected in the exclusion of women theologians from key
discussions (Lagat, 2016). Another weakness is that many studies are descriptive and lack critical engagement
with intersectional aspects like race, class, and age (Ngunjiri & Christo-Baker, 2012).
Cultural Adaptation Strategies
The Seventh-day Adventist Church employs varied cultural adaptation strategies to deal with diversity and
integration within its congregations. Almost 50% of the studies that were examined highlighted the importance
of amalgamating local customs, languages, and youth engagement as critical for church growth and leadership
acceptance (Sanou, 2024; Andrews University & Gambo, 2008; Masengwe & Magwidi, 2021). Challenges
caused by syncretism and traditional beliefs that conflict with biblical doctrines were emphasized by 30% of
the literature reviewed, signaling a need for critical contextualization (Andrews University & Gambo, 2023;
Baloyi & Phumzile, 2023; Agadjanian, 2024). Other studies noted the intercultural leadership challenges
encountered by women, including conflicting gender norms and effects of globalization (Krei, 2024;
Granquist, 2020).
Despite of various adaptation strategies, many studies focus narrowly on specific people groups, such as the
Maasai or Luo, which may not represent the vast East African contexts (Andrews University & Gambo, 2023;
Massoi, 2018). Many studies also tend to highlight challenges over adaptation strategies, thus skewing the
narrative in the direction of conflict rather than amalgamation (Andrews University, 2023).
Cultural adaptation encompasses negotiating indigenous customs, addressing syncretism, and biblical doctrine
contextualization in light of African traditions. Endeavors pertain to language adaptation, critical engagement
with traditional beliefs, and incorporating local practices into worship and governance, ensuring relevance and
resonance with congregants (Sanou, 2024; Andrews University & Gambo, 2023; Masengwe & Magwidi, 2021;
Massoi, 2018; Adogame & Spickard, 2010;). The tension is noted by literature between maintaining doctrinal
purity and enhancing cultural inclusivity, underscoring the persistent contextualization processes.
Basically, studies converge on the point that churches integrate local customs, languages, and engagement of
youth into their mission strategies to foster membership growth and remain relevant (Sanou, 2024; Masengwe
& Magwidi, 2021; Andrews University & Gambo, 2023). However, the divergence is on how effectively these
adaptations resolve the underlying tensions, particularly syncretism and the traditional beliefs versus biblical
teachings saga (Andrews University & Gambo, 2023). It is observed that some churches struggle to fully and
effectively engage the youth to strike the balance between traditional practices and doctrinal purity (Sanou,
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2024; Andrews University & Gambo, 2023). Potentially, this divergence stems from variations of the degrees
of contextual theology adaptation and local leadership effectiveness. Churches with more local leadership may
easily and better resolve cultural tensions than those retaining foreign mission models.
Historical progression
The historical progression of the Seventh-day Adventist Church in East Africa, like other denominations, is
marked by a series of strategic missionary activities and socio-cultural amalgamations that have considerably
played a role in its growth and establishment in the region. Out of the 50 studies that were reviewed, 30
mapped major milestones such as gradual acceptance of women as leaders, key leadership crises, and church
growth patterns influenced by indigenous and foreign missions (Sanou, 2024; Mujinga, 2020). While some
scholars documented ongoing challenges, including gender exclusion, cultural distance, and theological
debates over ordination (Lagat, 2016; Kariuki, 2024; Mupangwa & Chirongoma, 2020), others traced the
evolution of women’s leadership roles as a developmental process from marginalization to increasing visibility
and influence (Ngunjiri & Christo-Baker, 2012; Chitando, 2023; Mapuranga, 2013). However, historical
accounts overlook the contribution of women and local leaders, focusing the attention on lame missionary
figures (Richter, 2022). Additionally, there is a limited critical examination of how colonial and post-colonial
dynamics shaped leadership systems and cultural adaptation (Obare, 2021).
There is a noted consensus on vital milestones like shifting from predominantly missionary to indigenous
leadership, growth in membership, and increasing conversations on women’s roles over time (Sanou, 2024;
Kebede, 2024; Richter, 2022). Challenges such as syncretism, patriarchal resistance, and socio-cultural barriers
are consistently documented (Sanou, 2024; Andrews University & Gambo, 2023; Mwandayi, 2023).
However, some scholars offer more optimistic accounts of progress towards gender inclusivity and church
leadership diversification (Wakahiu & Salvaterra, 2012), while others document slow or uneven historical
progress, with consistent exclusion of women in sensitive roles (Mujinga, 2020; Mupangwa & Chirongoma,
2020). These differences are founded on the denominational histories, geographic specificity, and focus on
their organizational or grassroots developments. Studies with longitudinal data may capture more nuanced
shifts than cross-sectional ones.
Influence of Local leadership
Shaped by cultural, theological, and structural dynamics, the influence of local leadership in the Seventh-day
Adventist Church in East Africa cannot be overlooked. Scholars have documented immensely. In this review,
for instance, 56% of the literature dealt with the influence of local leadership in the progression of the Seventh-
day Adventist Church. Pivotal roles of local leaders in the contextualization of church governance, mediating
cultural amalgamation, and shaping leadership styles were underscored by these studies (Sanou, 2024;
Masengwe & Magwidi, 2021; Kairu et al., 2020; Kwaramba & dreyer, 2019). Additionally, some studies
focused on the emerging local female leaders who challenge traditional norms and expand leadership
paradigms (Mhando et al., 2018; Ngunjiri, 2006; Dassah and Nonterah, 2025).
Research has documented the efforts of integrating local customs and language and addressing syncretism and
cultural tensions, particularly in Kenya (Andrews University & Gambo, 2023). It was noted that the critical
contextualization method empowers members to navigate traditional beliefs (Andrews University & Gambo).
However, many studies narrow their focus on specific people groups such as the Luo or Maasai, which may
not represent the entirety of East Africa (Massoi, 2018; Andrews University, 2023), as mentioned before in this
review.
Scholars agree on the crucial role played by local leaders in terms of shaping governance, adapting leadership
styles, and mediating cultural amalgamation, obviously serving as agents of change within churches (Sanou,
2024; Masengwe & Magwidi, 2021). Effective cultural contextualization is linked to indigenous leadership
(Sanou, 2024; Masengwe & Magwidi, 2021). Divergence among scholars, however, is observed in the extent
to which local leaders embrace gender equity and youth engagement; some promote patriarchal norms limiting
women’s leadership, while others advocate for inclusivity and empowerment (Kabugi, 2023; Kairu, 2020;
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Mapuranga, 2013). Central to these divergences are the different local cultural norms, theological
interpretations, leadership training levels, and denominational policies affecting local leaders’ attitudes and
actions.
Summary of Thematic Analysis
Theme
Appears In
Theme Description
Women’s Leadership
and Participation in
Church
30/50
Research consistently highlights the underrepresentation,
challenges, and gradual empowerment of women in church
leadership roles. Studies reveal barriers such as patriarchal
structures, cultural norms, and theological debates that inhibit
women's ordination and leadership, while also document ing
initiatives and training programs aimed at empowering women for
ministry and leadership positions (Kabugi, 2023)(Lagat,
2016)("Development and Empowerment of Women for...",
2023)(Kinoti, 2019)(Ngunjiri & Christo-Baker,2012)(Chitando,
2023)(Frost, 2024)(Frost, 2024)(Frost,
2022)(Munamati,2023)(Mujinga, 2020)(Kwaramba & Dreyer,
2019)(Jager, 2023)(Graves, 2024)(Kebede, 2024)(Mwandayi,
2023)(Aringo & Njenga, 2022)(Gatumu, 2020)(Masengwe & Dube,
2024)(Mupangwa & Chirongoma, 2020)(Muriithi, 2000)(Nkomo &
Nga'mbi, 2009)("Integrating Women into the Leadership of...",
2023)(Wakahiu & Salvaterra, 2012)(Krei, 2024)("Kepemimpinan
Wanita Kristen: Pengaruh Da...", 2023)(Dassah & Nonterah,
2025)(Agadjanian, 2024). These findings show an evolving yet
contested landscape with calls for inclusive policies, theological
reinterpretation, and leadership development.
Leadership Evolution
and Styles in East
African Churches
28/50
Leadership in East African Adventist and related churches has
evolved from colonial missionary models to indigenous leadership
styles that reflect local cultural values. Leadership paradigms have
shifted towards more inclusive,transformational, and servant
leadership models, emphasizing communityengagement,
empowerment, and sustainability(Sanou, 2024)(Masengwe
&Magwidi, 2021)(Wakahiu & Keller, 2011)(Ngunjiri,
2006)(Wakahiu & Salvaterra,2012)(Hassan & Silong, 2008). The
integration of local leadership has contributed to church growth and
adaptability, although challenges remain in balancing traditional
authority and progressive leadership approaches
Cultural Adaptation
and Integration
25/50
The church's cultural adaptation includes negotiating indigenous
customs, addressing syncretism, and contextualizing biblical
teachings in light of African traditions. Efforts involve language
adaptation, critical engagement with traditional beliefs, and
incorporating local practices into worship and governance, ensuring
relevance and resonance with congregants (Sanou,2024) ("An
Adventist Missiological Response to T...", 2023) (Masengwe
&Magwidi, 2021) (Massoi, 2018) (Parsitau & Mwaura, 2010). The
literature underscore the tension between maintaining doctrinal
purity and fostering cultural inclusivity, highlighting ongoing
contextualization processes.
Historical progression
21/50
Studies trace the historical milestones of the Seventh-day Adventist
Church and other denominations in East Africa, documenting
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and Growth Patterns
missionary efforts, indigenization, expansion phases, and socio-
political challenges (Sanou, 2024) (Richter, 2022) (Kebede, 2024)
(Parsitau & Mwaura, 2010) (Ngunjiri, 2006) (Nkomo & Nga'mbi,
2009). This theme captures patterns of growth influenced by
political changes, gender dynamics, and cultural shifts, providing
achronological context for leadership and institutional
developments.
Influence of
Patriarchy and Gender
Norms
22/50
Patriarchal theology and cultural gender norms are identified as key
impediments to women’s leadership, influencing church policies
and attitudes. The literature discusses how masculine images of God
and societal expectations reinforce male dominance in church
leadership, marginalizing women despite their active participation
(Kabugi, 2023) (Lagat, 2016) (Sorke, n.d.) (Kariuki, 2024) (KAIRU
et al., n.d.) (Frost, 2024) (Baloyi & Phumzile, 2022) (Mwandayi,
2023) (Muriithi, 2000) (Agadjanian, 2024) (Mapuranga, 2013). This
theme intersects with theological hermeneutics and calls for
egalitarian reinterpretations.
Role of Leadership
Training and
Empowerment
programs
13/50
Leadership development programs, especially for women religious,
are shown to enhance leadership capacities, confidence, and
community impact in East Africa. Training initiatives promote
transformational leadership attributes and help overcome socio-
cultural barriers, contributing to sustainable church growth and
social change (Kinoti, 2019) (Wakahiu & Keller, 2011) (Wakahiu
&Salvaterra, 2012) (Ngunjiri, 2006). These programs are pivotal in
shifting leadership dynamics and fostering inclusivity.
Youth Engagement
and Language
Adaptation
10/50
Engagement with youth and language adaptation are highlighted as
critical to the church’s cultural integration and growth. Studies
indicate that using local languages and culturally relevant youth
programs enhances participation and retention, bridging
generational and cultural gaps (Sanou, 2024) ("An Adventist
Missiological Response to T...", 2023) (Parsitau & Mwaura, 2010)
(Masengwe &Magwidi, 2021). These strategies contribute to
sustaining the church’s relevance in diverse communities.
Theological Debates
on Women’s
Ordination
13/50
The ordination of women remains a contentious theological issue
within the East African Adventist community, influenced by local
cultural resistance and global denominational debates. Research
discusses biblical interpretations, exclusionary practices, and the
efforts of African theologians advocating for contextual theology
and gender equality (Lagat, 2016) (Sorke, n.d.) (Kariuki,2024)
(Kebede, 2024) (Gatumu, 2020) (Nwoko & Igbokwe, 2023)
(Mapuranga,2013). This theme reflects the intersection of theology,
culture, and gender politics.
Intersection of
Religion, Gender, and
Social Change
12/50
The interaction of religious beliefs, gender roles, and social
transformation is explored, demonstrating how women leverage
religious spaces to challenge patriarchal norms and promote gender
equality. Studies document women’s agency in ministry and
community development despite systemic obstacles (Ngunjiri &
Christo-Baker, 2012) (Chitando, 2023) (Frost, 2024) (Molobi &
Mzondi, 2022) (Baloyi & Phumzile, 2022) (Mwandayi, 2023)
(Phaliso,2012) (Hassan & Silong, 2008). The church’s role in
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societal advancement is emphasized through women’s leadership.
Challenges and
Barriers faced by
Women Leaders
18/50
Women leaders face multiple challenges including exclusion from
decision-making, cultural taboos, lack of policy support, and socio-
economic constraints. Research underscores the persistence of these
barriers despite advances and calls for policy reform and cultural
change to support women’s leadership aspirations (Kabugi, 2023)
(Frost, 2024) (Mujinga, 2020) (Kwaramba& Dreyer, 2019) (Msoka
& Muya, 2018) (Mupangwa & Chirongoma, 2020) (Dassah &
Nonterah, 2025) (Mapuranga, 2013). These findings highlight the
ongoing struggle for gender equity in church leadership.
Agreement and Divergence Across Studies
The reviewed literature reveals strong consensus on the persistent patriarchal structures limiting women's
leadership roles in East African churches, including the Seventh-day Adventist Church, and highlights ongoing
efforts toward empowerment and leadership development. Many studies acknowledge cultural and theological
barriers intertwined with local customs that shapeleadership dynamics and influence the church's approach to
gender inclusivity and cultural adaptation. However, divergence arises regarding the pace and extent of
change, especially concerning women's ordination and local contextualization, with some studies
emphasizingresistance by traditional leadership while others highlight emerging transformative
leadershipmodels by women. Differences in geographic focus, denominational contexts, andmethodological
approaches contribute to these variations.
Summary of Agreement and Divergence Across Studies
Comparison Criterion
Agreement
Potential Explanations
Leadership Evolution
Most studies agree that
leadership in East African
churches has evolved from
predominantly foreign
missionary control to
increased indigenous
leadership, incorporating
adaptive leadership styles
responsive to cultural
contexts (Sanou, 2024)
(Masengwe &Magwidi,
2021). Leadership
development programs,
especially for women, have
fostered shifts toward
transformational and servant
leadership models (Wakahiu
& Keller,2011) (Wakahiu &
Salvaterra, 2012) (Ngunjiri,
2006).
Variations in
denominational traditions,
resistance levels to
change, and scope of
leadership programs
explain differences;
empirical studies focusing
on grass roots leadership
reveal more progress than
institutional church
assessments.
Women’s Leadership
Participation
There is broad agreement
that women remain
underrepresented informal
church leadership across
denominations, facing
Differences arise from
denominational theology,
cultural contexts, and
levels of institutional
conservatism. Pentecostal
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structural barriers like lack
of ordination or unequal
licensing practices
(Kabugi,2023) (Sorke, n.d.)
(Mupangwa &Chirongoma,
2020). Studies concur on the
need for policy revisions to
allow women's ordination
and active involvement
(Kabugi, 2023) ("Integrating
Women into the Leadership
of...", 2023)
("Kepemimpinan Wanita
Kristen: Pengaruh Da...",
2023). Leadership
empowerment initiatives
have shown positive
impacts on women’s agency
and leadership capacity
(Wakahiu &Keller, 2011)
(Wakahiu &
Salvaterra,2012) (Ngunjiri,
2006).
and African Initiated
Churches may offer more
leadership space for
women compared to main
line churches with stricter
policies.
Cultural Adaptation
Strategies
Studies agree that churches
have increasingly integrated
local customs, languages,
and youth engagement into
their mission strategies to
remain relevant and foster
membership growth
(Sanou,2024) ("An
Adventist Missiological
Response to T...", 2023)
(Masengwe& Magwidi,
2021). Contextualization is
critical for addressing
traditional belief systems
and reducing syncretism
("An Adventist
Missiological Response to
T...",2023). Youth
engagement is recognized as
essential for sustainability
(Sanou, 2024).
Divergences stem from
varying degrees of
contextual theology
adoption and local
leadership effectiveness.
Churches with more
indigenous leadership
may better negotiate
cultural tensions than
those retaining foreign
mission frameworks.
Historical Progression
There is consensus on key
milestones such as the shift
from foreign missionary
dominance to indigenous
leadership, growth in
membership, and escalating
debates on women's roles
Differences emerge from
denominational histories,
geographic specificity,
and focus on either
institutional or grass roots
developments. Studies
with longitudinal data
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
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over time (Sanou,2024)
(Kebede, 2024)
(Richter,2022). Challenges
like syncretism, patriarchal
resistance, and social-
cultural barriers are
consistently documented
(Sanou, 2024) ("An
Adventist Missiological
Response to T...", 2023)
(Mwandayi, 2023).
may capture more
nuanced shifts than cross-
sectional ones.
Influence of Local
Leaders
There is agreement that
local leadersplay a crucial
role in shaping governance,
adapting leadership styles,
and mediating cultural
integration, often serving as
agents of change within
churches (Sanou,2024)
(Masengwe & Magwidi,
2021). Indigenous
leadership is linked to more
effective cultural
contextualization (Sanou,
2024) (Masengwe &
Magwidi, 2021).
Divergences relate to
differing local cultural
norms, theological
interpretations, leadership
training levels, and
denominational policies
affecting local leaders'
attitudes and actions.
Theoretical implications
The findings from this review highlights the complex interchange between leadership evolution, cultural
adaptation strategies, gender dynamics, historical development, and local leadership influence within the
Seventh-day Adventist Church in East Africa, standing against traditional patriarchal leadership frameworks
and advocating for more inclusive leadership paradigms that amalgamate local cultural environments and
gender equity (Kabugi, 2023; Lagat, 2016). The continued impact of patriarchal theology and cultural norms
on leadership structure is evident, yet there is a developing theological critique advocating egalitarian
interpretations supporting women’s full participation in leadership, proposing a shift towards more contextual
and liberative hermeneutics within African Adventism (Kariuki, 2024; Kairu, 2016; Mwandayi, 2023).
Scholarly discourse examines women’s leadership through biblical, theological, socio-cultural, and
missiological spectacles, highlighting the need to do away with systemic barriers like administrative and
patriarchal ones for true inclusivity (Kebede, 2024; Baloyi & Phumzile, 2022; Dassah & Nonterah, 2025).
Transformational and servant leadership frameworks are empirically shown to foster effectiveness and propel
transformation (Wakahiu & Keller, 2011; Wakahiu & Salvaterra, 2012; Ngunjiri, 2006). Amalgamating
indigenous values creates opportunities for empowering women by respecting African motherhood and
communality (Molobi & Mzondi, 2022; Frost, 2024; Masengwe & Magwidi, 2021). The literature denies
restrictive biblical interpretations, attributing them to cultural patriarchy and advocating for hermeneutical re-
examination (Gatumu, 2020; Nwoko & Igbokwe, 2023; Aringo & Njenga, 2022).
Practical Implications
Church leadership must revise policies to formally support women's ordination and empowerment (Kabugi,
2023; Andrews University & Simankane, 2023; Jager, 2023). Cultural adaptation needs critical engagement of
local customs that conflict with biblical teachings (Andrews University & Gambo, 2023). Trainings are
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essential to equip women with skills to overcome social-cultural barriers (Wakahiu & Keller, 2011; Wakahiu &
Salvaterra, 2012). Churches should develop inclusive environments that unleash the diverse gifts of all
members (Famorot, 2023; Graves, 2024; Chitando, 2023). Sustained advocacy and education are required to
do away with patriarchal biases and systemic obstacles (Kwaramba & Dreyer, 2019; Mupangwa &
Chirongoma, 2020; Muriithi, 2000). Youth engagement and the use of local languages foster cultural
integration and sustainable growth (Sanou, 2024; Andrews University & Gumbo, 2023).
Definitions of theoretical terms
Seventh-day Adventists: Are protestant Christians who observe Saturday as the biblical Sabbath as written on
Exodus 20:8 and emphasizing the imminent, visible return of Jesus Christ, holistic health, and the authority of
the Bible.
Leadership Evolution: Refers to the dynamic process through which leadership styles, structures, and sources
transform over time, often shifting from centralized, hierarchical models to more inclusive, adaptive, and
contextually responsive forms.
Cultural Adaptation: Refers to the process by which groups or individuals adjust their practices, beliefs, and
organizational structures to integrate and function effectively within a specific cultural context, often to
maintain relevance while navigating tensions with existing traditions.
Women’s Leadership: Encompasses the roles, influence, and transformative practices of women in positions
of authority, often characterized by the challenge of navigating systemic barriers to achieve influence and drive
change within traditional patriarchal structures.
Global Denominational Membership: Refers to the total number of baptized individuals organized into
churches within the worldwide structure of the Seventh-day Adventist Church.
Limitations of the Literature
In this review various limitations were noted in the literature. First was geographic bias limitation. Many
studies focus on specific regions or countries within East Africa, limiting the possibility for generalizability of
findings across the entire region, restricting external validity, and overlooking diverse cultural and leadership
dynamics (Andrews University & Simankane, 2023; Andrews University & Gumbo, 2023; Mujinga, 2020).
Second was gender representation bias. Several studies underscore underrepresentation of women in leadership
roles but often rely on limited samples or specific denominations, constraining the broader applicability of
conclusions on women’s leadership experiences (Kabugi, 2023; Lagat, 2016; Andrews University &
Simankane, 2023; Mujinga, 2020; Mupangwa & Chirongoma, 2020).
Third was methodological constraints. Many studies predominantly employ qualitative designs with small
purposive samples, limiting the robustness and replicability of findings. Longitudinal or mixed-method
approaches were lacking, reducing the ability of leadership evolution assessment over time (Kabugi, 2023;
Lagat, 2016; Andrews University & Simankane, 2023; Mujinga, 2020; Wakahiu & Keller, 2011).
The fourth limitation was theological and cultural focus. Many papers underscore theological interpretation or
cultural factors influencing leadership, which may introduce bias and limit empirical assessment of leadership
practices, affecting the objectivity and transferability of findings (Lagat, 2016; Kariuki, 2024; Frost, 2024;
Mwandayi, 2023; Kairu, 2016).
Limited historical scope was the fifth limitation. Historical analyses often concentrate on specific milestones or
periods, neglecting continuous leadership evolution and broader socio-political influences, thus limiting
understanding of long-term trends and challenges (Sanou, 2024; Richter, 2024; Masengwe & Magwidi, 2021).
The sixth limitation is the lack of comparative studies. Few studies compare leadership styles, cultural
adaptations, or gender roles across different denominations, restricting the ability to identify patterns or
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divergences that could foster theoretical and practical insights (Kabugi, 2023; Obare, 2021; Munamati, 2023;
Jager, 2023).
Insufficient focus on youth engagement was the seventh limitation noted. Literature inadequately addresses
youth engagement strategies within church leadership, limiting insights into how leadership evolution interacts
with younger demographics and future sustainability of church growth (Sanou, 2024; Andrews University &
Gumbo, 2023)
Gaps and Future Research Directions
The synthesis of research gaps and future directions across various disciplines reveals a common theme of
underrepresentation and the need for more comprehensive studies. In this literature review, several research
gaps were noted, providing opportunities for scholars to conduct thorough or deeper investigations. Among
them is the quantitative analysis of leadership evolution. The existing studies on leadership evolution are
predominantly qualitative and lack longitudinal quantitative data to track changes over time. Future researchers
are to conduct longitudinal mixed-methods studies incorporating quantitative metrics to assess leadership
styles and their impact on church growth and sustainability. This is justifiable since quantitative data will
enable generalizable insights and clear understanding of leadership evolution dynamics beyond descriptive
narratives (Sanou, 2024; Kabugi, 2023).
Another gap is the intersection analysis of women's leadership barriers. Research often overlooks
intersectional dimensions such as race, class, and age that compound barriers to women’s leadership in the
church. Future research may study how multiple social identities affect women’s leadership experiences and
opportunities. This is because intersectionality is critical for the full understanding of nuanced challenges
women face and to design effective empowerment strategies (Lagat, 2016; Ngunjiri & Christo-Baker, 2012).
Other gaps noted in this review that require future exploration are the impact assessment of cultural adaptation
strategies, the understanding of which, will help the optimization of church growth and sustainability in
diverse cultural contexts (Sanou, 2024; Andrews University & Gumbo, 2023); the inclusion of African women
theologians in ordination debates to enrich discourse and promote decision-making (Lagat, 2016); the
systematic evaluation of youth engagement approaches (Sanou, 2024; Andrews University & Gumbo, 2023);
Theological models reconciling cultural and gender tensions to bridge the divides and foster unity in
multicultural church settings (Lagat, 2016, Gatumu, 2020); the role of local female leaders challenging
patriarchal norms to inform empowerment programs and policy reforms (Mhando et al., 2018; Ngunjiri, 2006;
Dassah & Nonterah, 2025); effects of patriarchal church structures on women’s leadership progression to
address systemic barriers for genuine gender equity in church leadership (Kwaramba & Dreyer, 2019;
Mupangwa & Chirongoma, 2020; Dassah & Nonterah, 2025); leadership training impact on women’s
empowerment, to get evidence on training efficacy and guide resource allocation and program design for
sustained empowerment (Wakahiu & Keller, 2011; Wakahiu & Salvaterra, 2012), and historical documentation
of women’s leadership contributions; filling that gap will validate women’s leadership legacy and inspire
future generations (Sanou, 2024; Obare, 2021).
Overall Synthesis and Conclusion
The literature on the Seventh-day Adventist Church in East Africa reveals a nuanced and evolving landscape
of leadership, cultural adaptation, and gender dynamics shaped by historical, societal, and theological factors.
Leadership evolution within the church has transitioned from foreign missionary dominance to increasingly
indigenous models that integrate local customs and languages, reflecting an adaptive response to the
sociocultural and political contexts of East Africa. However, this transformation remains uneven and often
constrained by entrenched patriarchal structures that preserve male dominance in governance and decision-
making. Despite some leadership training initiatives and empowerment programs enhancing women
’s
leadership capacities, the persistence of male-centric leadership norms and limited ordination opportunities for
women indicate significant barriers to full inclusion.
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Women’s participation in church leadership is one of the most extensively documented yet contested themes.
The literature collectively highlights systemic challenges including cultural patriarchy, theological
conservatism, and institutional resistance that marginalize women’s roles, particularly in ordained ministry.
Nonetheless, there is a growing recognition of women
’s contributions and a gradual, though cautious, shift
toward empowerment facilitated by advocacy, theological reinterpretation, and leadership development
programs. Women leaders often negotiate complex cultural and religious landscapes to gain legitimacy, with
some emerging a transformative figure who challenge traditional norms, especially within Pentecostal and
African Initiated Churches. However, the gap between favorable attitudes toward women
’s leadership and
actual policy or practice changes remains significant.
Cultural adaptation strategies are critical for the church’s growth and sustainability, emphasizing the
integration of local customs, languages, and youth engagement. While these strategies have enabled
contextualization and relevance, challenges such as syncretism, conflicting traditional beliefs, and intercultural
leadership tensions—especially for women—persist. Youth engagement and language adaptation are identified
as vital but under-researched areas, with limited empirical data on their long-term impact on membership
retention and spiritual formation.
Historically, the church’s progression features notable milestones including indigenous leadership assumption
and incremental visibility of women leaders. Yet, historical narratives often underrepresent women and local
leaders, tending to focus on missionary figures and overlooking postcolonial dynamics. Local leaders play a
pivotal role in contextualizing governance and mediating cultural integration, though male leaders frequently
uphold patriarchal norms that restrict women’s advancement. Emerging local female leaders, however, signify
a gradual paradigm shift toward a more inclusive and diversified leadership model.
Overall, the body of literature underscores the complex interplay of faith, culture, and leadership within East
African Seventh-day Adventism. It calls for more inclusive, contextually sensitive frameworks that address
gender equity, empower women leaders, and deepen cultural integration, particularly through youth
engagement and language adaptation. Future research should prioritize longitudinal and quantitative studies to
evaluate the effectiveness of leadership transformations and cultural strategies, while practical ecclesiastical
reforms must promote policies that reconcile theological fidelity with cultural realities to sustain the church
’s
growth and vitality in the region.
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