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Teachers’ Pedagogical Approaches, Motivation, and Time
Management as Determinants of Mathematics Achievement among
Malaysian Secondary School Students
Nurulhayah Muhamad
1
, Maryam Mohd Esa
1
, Rusyda Yahya
1
, Norzaimah Zainol
1
, Nadiah Ishak
1
,
Nazila Ishak
2
1
Faculty of Business, Hospitality and Technology, Universiti Islam Melaka, Malaysia
2
MARA Junior Science College BERA-ATM, Pahang, Malaysia
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000454
Received: 22 October 2025; Accepted: 28 October 2025; Published: 15 November 2025
ABSTRACT
This study examines the extent to which teachers’ pedagogical approaches, instructional-level suitability,
motivational strategies, and classroom time management influence students’ mathematics achievement in
Malaysian secondary schools. Employing a quantitative research design, data were collected through a
structured questionnaire administered to 591 Form 4 and Form 5 students across six schools in Masjid Tanah,
Melaka. The data were analyzed using SPSS version 27, incorporating descriptive and correlational analyses to
determine the strength and significance of the relationships among variables. Findings revealed statistically
significant positive correlations between all teacher-related factors and students’ mathematics achievement,
with coefficients ranging from r = 0.237 to r = 0.488 (p < 0.01). Among students from Sekolah Menengah
Agama (SMA), teacher delivery methods (r = 0.488), instructional-level suitability (r = 0.422), and
motivational strategies (r = 0.449) demonstrated moderate associations with mathematical proficiency. In
contrast, these relationships were weaker yet significant among students from Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan
(SMK) (r = 0.237–0.278). Teaching time management exhibited weak but positive relationships in both
contexts. These outcomes underscore the crucial role of teachers in enhancing mathematical understanding
through effective pedagogical delivery, alignment of instructional content with students’ cognitive readiness,
and sustained motivational engagement. The study provides empirical insights that reinforce the objectives of
the Malaysia Education Blueprint (2013–2025) and contribute to the realization of Sustainable Development
Goal 4, which emphasizes inclusive and equitable quality education.
Keywords: Teacher pedagogical approaches, instructional-level suitability, motivational strategies, time
management, mathematics achievement, SPM, Malaysia
INTRODUCTION
The persistent underperformance of students in Mathematics, particularly among Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia
(SPM) candidates, continues to be a major concern within Malaysia’s education system. Despite extensive
curriculum reforms and the integration of digital learning tools, Mathematics remains one of the subjects with
the highest failure rates nationwide. This long-standing issue suggests that student achievement is not solely
determined by curriculum content or student effort, but is also closely tied to teachers’ teaching approaches,
motivational strategies, and classroom time management. Teachers’ ability to deliver lessons at appropriate
levels, sustain student interest, and foster motivation plays a crucial role in shaping Mathematics learning
outcomes across different schooling contexts.
Effective teaching in Mathematics hinges not only on curriculum content but also on how that content is
delivered. Teachers’ delivery methods ranging from lecture-based instruction to inquiry-driven learning have a
significant impact on student understanding and engagement. However, many educators struggle to adapt these
methods appropriately across different teaching levels, such as primary, lower secondary, or upper secondary,
where cognitive development and learning styles vary (Gallagher, Parsons, & Vaughn, 2022). Compounding
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this challenge is the role of teacher motivation strategies, including the ability to foster a positive emotional
climate and promote student persistence through empathy, feedback, and peer support. In parallel, time
management in lesson planning and delivery is often cited as a constraint that limits the implementation of
student-centered strategies. Together, these factors can hinder teachers from delivering impactful Mathematics
instruction, especially in diverse classrooms where learners have varying needs and levels of readiness. This
study therefore seeks to explore the interplay among teachers’ teaching approaches, grade-level suitability,
motivational practices, and time management to better understand how to enhance both teaching effectiveness
and student interest in Mathematics.
According to the Laporan Analisis Keputusan Peperiksaan SPM 2022 (Malaysian Examination Board, 2023),
24.3% of the 373,974 candidates failed Mathematics, while another 29% obtained grades D and E meaning
that more than half (54%) of all SPM candidates scored between grades D to G. Although there was a minor
improvement of 1.2% from the previous year, the marginal progress indicates that the underlying causes of
poor achievement remain unresolved. Mathematics continues to record the second-highest failure rate after
Additional Mathematics (26.2%). These figures reflect a systemic challenge that cannot be addressed by
syllabus reform alone, but requires deeper attention to how Mathematics is taught and how teachers are
supported to manage instructional time, motivate students, and adapt lessons effectively.
In many schools, teachers face multiple constraints large class sizes, diverse student abilities, time limitations,
and pressure to complete the syllabus which restrict their ability to provide personalized feedback or adopt
differentiated teaching methods. As a result, students who struggle with abstract mathematical concepts often
experience anxiety, low self-efficacy, and disinterest, further reducing their performance. Previous studies
have highlighted that when teachers employ motivational techniques, interactive problem-solving sessions, and
constructive feedback, students tend to demonstrate higher engagement and improved mathematical reasoning
(Moron & Brun, 2019; Brandenberger et al., 2018).
The consequences of weak Mathematics performance extend far beyond the classroom. Students who fail
Mathematics face limited access to tertiary education and restricted career pathways, especially in fields
requiring analytical and quantitative reasoning such as finance, data analytics, engineering, and business. For
instance, at Universiti Islam Melaka (UNIMEL), at least 15 academic programmes at the foundation, diploma,
and bachelor’s degree levels require students to achieve at least a pass in Mathematics as an entry prerequisite.
Employers in Malaysia have also expressed concern about graduates’ declining numeracy and problem-solving
abilities (TalentCorp, 2024), aligning with the World Economic Forum’s Future of Jobs Report (2023), which
lists analytical and mathematical thinking among the top employability skills in the 21st-century workforce.
Given these realities, this study aims to examine how teachers’ instructional approaches, motivational
strategies, level-appropriate teaching methods, and classroom time management contribute to students’
achievement in SPM Mathematics. The research focuses on Form 4 and Form 5 students from six secondary
schools in Masjid Tanah, Melaka, employing a mixed-methods design that integrates both questionnaires and
interviews.
This study aligns with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4, which advocates for inclusive and equitable
quality education, and supports Malaysia’s Dasar Pendidikan Digital (DPD), which seeks to strengthen digital
literacy and teaching innovation. By identifying effective, teacher-driven strategies to improve Mathematics
learning, this research contributes to national educational transformation efforts and Malaysia MADANI’s
aspiration to produce a mathematically capable generation prepared for Industry 4.0 and future socioeconomic
challenges.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Teacher’s Pedagogical Approaches
Teachers’ pedagogical approaches serve as a core determinant of effective mathematics instruction and,
consequently, student achievement. Contemporary studies emphasize the importance of inquiry based,
collaborative, and technology supported methods that promote active engagement and deeper conceptual
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understanding (Areepattamannil & Khine, 2021; Zhu & Kaiser, 2022; Lopez & Gurat, 2024). High
instructional quality characterized by conceptual clarity, responsive feedback, and contextualized learning has
been shown to strengthen mathematical reasoning and motivation. In Malaysian classrooms, however, many
teachers continue to rely on conventional teacher-centered delivery, which limits opportunities for student
participation and inquiry-based exploration (Rahman et al., 2023).
Teaching-level suitability
Teaching-level suitability refers to the alignment between instructional content and students’ cognitive
readiness. When lessons are pitched either too high or too low, disparities in understanding emerge, leading to
reduced engagement and achievement. Teachers who effectively calibrate lesson complexity and incorporate
differentiated strategies enable both high and low achievers to progress meaningfully (Rahman, Ismail &
Yusof, 2021; Norazman & Hassan, 2023). Despite Malaysia’s policy emphasis on adaptive instruction,
implementation remains inconsistent across school types. SMA teachers, operating in more structured learning
environments, tend to demonstrate stronger mastery in adjusting content to students’ levels, while SMK
teachers often face constraints related to class size and syllabus coverage.
Motivational approaches
Teachers’ motivational practices such as empathy, encouragement, and growth-mindset reinforcement play a
critical role in reducing mathematics anxiety and enhancing persistence (Wang, Xu & Fei, 2024; Boaler, 2022;
Canning, White & Davis, 2024). Supportive classroom climates that foster trust and belonging have been
linked to higher mathematics engagement (Chaffee et al., 2025). Nonetheless, variations in teacher student
rapport and classroom culture may explain differences in motivation between SMK and SMA students, where
the latter often report stronger peer support and teacher responsiveness.
Teaching time management
Effective time management determines the extent to which teachers can balance curriculum coverage with
student centered learning. Allocating adequate time for formative assessment, feedback, and guided practice
enhances comprehension and retention (König et al., 2021; Rahman et al., 2023). However, many Malaysian
teachers face time constraints due to examination pressure, resulting in less emphasis on interactive or
reflective learning activities (Teh & Mahmood, 2023). SMA classrooms, characterized by smaller student
teacher ratios and stricter routines, may allow for more effective time use compared to SMK settings.
Students’ Mathematics Achievement
Mathematics achievement serves as a key indicator of academic quality and national competitiveness,
particularly at the SPM level. In Malaysia, consistent disparities in performance across schools raise concerns
about teaching effectiveness and classroom practices (Malaysian Examinations Board, 2024). Previous studies
have linked effective pedagogy, motivational strategies, and efficient time management to improved
mathematical performance (Che Ahmad et al., 2023; García-García & Morales, 2021). Teachers who employ
differentiated and student-centered instruction tend to foster deeper conceptual understanding, self-efficacy,
and long-term retention (Zhang & Liu, 2022; Ibrahim et al., 2022).
Despite extensive research on instructional quality, limited empirical work has explored how these
relationships vary between different types of Malaysian secondary schools. SMK and SMA differ significantly
in institutional culture, teacher supervision, and student learning discipline. SMA environments often
characterized by smaller classes and stronger motivational climates may enable more effective pedagogical
implementation compared to the larger, exam driven SMK classrooms. Yet, few studies have systematically
compared these dynamics to determine whether such contextual differences meaningfully influence student
achievement.
Addressing this gap, the present study investigates how teachers’ instructional approaches, level appropriate
teaching, motivation, and time management collectively shape mathematics achievement, while explicitly
comparing outcomes between SMK and SMA students. This focus provides nuanced insights into the
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contextual factors underpinning performance variations and contributes evidence to guide differentiated
pedagogical practices and targeted educational interventions.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This study adopted a quantitative correlational research design, considered appropriate for examining the
interrelationships among psychological and social determinants namely teachers’ teaching approaches,
teaching-level suitability, motivational approaches, teaching time management and mathematics achievement
without experimental manipulation of variables. In contrast to experimental designs that necessitate controlled
environments, the correlational approach facilitates the natural observation of associations within authentic
classroom contexts. Although a mixed-methods design was initially considered, it was ultimately excluded, as
the primary objective of the study centered on identifying statistical relationships rather than exploring
qualitative perspectives. This methodological choice aligns with prior educational research employing
correlational frameworks to investigate similar constructs (Creswell & Creswell, 2023).
Population and Sampling
The study population comprised Form 4 and Form 5 students enrolled in six secondary schools located in
Masjid Tanah, Melaka, encompassing both Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan (SMK) and Sekolah Menengah
Agama (SMA). A total of 591 students participated in the study, consisting of 444 from SMK and 147 from
SMA, representing both male and female students. The inclusion criteria specified that participants must be
current Form 4 or Form 5 students who had completed at least one internal mathematics examination during
the 2024 academic year. Students with incomplete questionnaire responses or without documented parental
consent were excluded from the analysis to ensure data validity and ethical compliance.
Table 1: Demographic Distribution of Respondents
Demographic Variable
Category
Frequency (n)
Percentage (%)
School Type
SMK
444
75.1
SMA
147
24.9
Form Level
Form 4
247
41.8
Form 5
344
58.2
Gender
Male
276
46.7
Female
315
53.3
A convenience sampling technique was employed, primarily based on accessibility and administrative
approval obtained from the participating schools. Although non-probabilistic in nature, this approach was
deemed appropriate for educational research settings characterized by practical constraints such as limited
time, institutional access, and logistical considerations (Etikan & Bala, 2017).
Research Instrument
A structured questionnaire was used, comprising five main constructs:
Table 2: Cronbach Alpha for main constructs
No. of item, n
Cronbach Alpha,
10
0.909
6
0.847
6
0.897
4
0.882
10
0.891
Each construct was measured using a five-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree).
The questionnaire was adapted from validated scales used in Shamsuddin et al. (2024), Rahim et al. (2024),
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and Abd Karim et al. (2023). Content validity was confirmed through expert review by three educational
psychologists, ensuring that items aligned with the theoretical constructs. Cronbach’s alpha values for all five
constructs exceeded 0.70, indicating satisfactory internal consistency (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994).
Data Collection Procedure
Data collection was conducted over three weeks in October 2024, after receiving approval from the Alor Gajah
District Education Office and formal permission from the participating schools. Questionnaires were
distributed and collected by the school teachers during class sessions. All participants and their teachers were
informed about the study’s objectives, confidentiality, and voluntary participation. No personal identifiers
were collected to maintain anonymity and ethical compliance.
Data Analysis
All data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 27. Descriptive
statistics, including means, standard deviations, and frequencies, were computed to summarize respondents’
demographic characteristics and overall responses for each construct.
Inferential analyses were conducted in two sequential stages to address the study objectives. In the first stage,
Pearson’s correlation analysis was utilized to examine the direction and magnitude of relationships between
the four independent variables Teachers’ Teaching Approaches, Teaching-Level Suitability, Teachers’
Motivational Approaches, and Teaching Time Management and Mathematics Achievement. This analysis
provided an initial overview of how each pedagogical determinant was associated with student performance
across both school types.
In the second stage, multiple linear regression analysis was performed to assess the combined and individual
predictive effects of these teacher-related factors on Mathematics Achievement. This procedure enabled the
identification of the most influential predictors after accounting for intercorrelations among variables. Separate
regression models were estimated for Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan (SMK) and Sekolah Menengah Agama
(SMA) to facilitate comparative interpretation across different school contexts.
Prior to analysis, the statistical assumptions of normality, linearity, multicollinearity, and homoscedasticity
were examined using skewness kurtosis indices, scatterplots, and variance inflation factor (VIF) values. All
assumptions were satisfied within acceptable limits. Statistical significance was interpreted at p < 0.05
(significant) and p < 0.01 (highly significant).
The integration of both correlation and regression analyses enhanced the methodological rigor of the study.
While correlation analysis identified general patterns of association among the teacher-related factors and
Mathematics Achievement, regression analysis provided deeper insights into their unique and collective
predictive power. Together, these analytical techniques offered a comprehensive understanding of how
pedagogical and managerial factors interact to influence students’ mathematical performance.
RESULTS & FINDINGS
Comparison between SMK and SMA
Table 3. Summary Table for the Comparison of the Teachers’ Teaching Approaches in Mathematics between
SMK and SMA.
School Type
Mean (M)
Standard Deviation
Interpretation
Remarks
SMK
4.0167
0.5740
High
Teachers’ teaching approaches in SMK are
generally effective, though slightly less
dynamic compared to SMA.
SMA
4.2796
0.6236
High
SMA teachers demonstrate stronger use of
student-centered and inquiry-based approaches.
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Both SMK and SMA reported high mean scores for teaching approaches, indicating that teachers in both
settings apply sound instructional methods. However, SMA (M = 4.28) scored marginally higher than SMK
(M = 4.02), suggesting that SMA teachers tend to integrate more varied, interactive, and student-engaging
techniques in their mathematics instruction. The smaller standard deviation in SMK implies greater uniformity
among teachers, while the higher variability in SMA may reflect more diverse pedagogical practices. Overall,
SMA teachers appear more adaptable in applying teaching strategies aligned with students’ learning needs.
Table 4. Summary Table for the Comparison of the Teaching-Level Suitability between SMK and SMA.
School Type
Mean (M)
Standard Deviation
Interpretation
Remarks
SMK
4.0758
0.5653
High
Teaching content is generally well-aligned
with students’ learning levels.
SMA
4.2789
0.5943
High
SMA teachers demonstrate stronger adaptation
of instructional content to student readiness.
Both groups display high mean values, indicating that teachers effectively match instructional content to
students’ cognitive and academic levels. The slightly higher mean in SMA (M = 4.28) suggests greater
sensitivity to student differences and better differentiation in lesson design. This may reflect the more
structured and smaller class settings typical of SMA schools, which facilitate individualized instruction.
Conversely, larger class sizes and syllabus constraints in SMK may limit teachers’ flexibility in adjusting
teaching levels.
Table 5. Summary Table for the Comparison of the Teachers’ Motivational Approaches between SMK and
SMA.
School Type
Mean (M)
Standard Deviation
Interpretation
Remarks
SMK
4.1595
0.6076
High
Teachers provide motivational support,
though less personalized compared to
SMA.
SMA
4.4082
0.6390
High
SMA teachers show stronger
motivational engagement and student
rapport.
Motivational approaches were rated highly in both school types, with SMA teachers scoring higher (M = 4.41).
This indicates that SMA teachers employ more consistent encouragement, empathy, and reinforcement
strategies to sustain student interest in mathematics. The higher standard deviation in SMA suggests diverse
motivational styles among teachers. In contrast, SMK teachers also exhibit positive motivation practices, but
possibly in a more standardized or directive manner. These findings align with previous research suggesting
that school environment and teacher student rapport influence motivational climate and student engagement.
Table 6. Summary Table for the Comparison of the Teaching Time Management between SMK and SMA.
School Type
Mean (M)
Standard Deviation
Interpretation
Remarks
SMK
4.2078
0.6641
High
Teachers manage time effectively but face
syllabus and workload constraints.
SMA
4.3333
0.7530
High
SMA teachers demonstrate more structured
and efficient classroom time management.
Both SMK and SMA teachers show strong time management skills, though SMA obtained a slightly higher
mean (M = 4.33). This indicates that SMA teachers are generally more consistent in organizing lessons, pacing
instruction, and allocating time for feedback and student interaction. The broader variability in SMA’s SD
value (0.75) suggests a range of practices influenced by teaching experience or institutional expectations. SMK
teachers’ slightly lower mean may reflect systemic challenges such as larger classes, limited instructional
periods, and examination driven pacing.
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Across all four constructs, SMA teachers consistently outperformed SMK teachers, with differences ranging
between 0.20 and 0.27 in mean values. These results imply that SMA environments foster more adaptive
pedagogy, better instructional alignment, stronger motivation, and efficient time management. The findings
also suggest that institutional culture and class size may contribute significantly to variations in teaching
effectiveness and, consequently, students’ mathematics achievement.
Correlation Analysis
Table 7: Strength of Variable Relationships (Davis, 1971)
Correlation Coefficient, r
Description of strength
0.70 and above
Very strong
0.50 to 0.69
Strong
0.30 to 0.49
Moderate
0.10 to 0.29
Weak
0.01 to 0.09
Negligible
Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan
Table 8: Strength of Variable Relationships with Mathematics Proficiency Level (Sekolah Menengah
Kebangsaan)
Variables
Correlation Coeficient, r
Description of strength
Teacher Delivery Methods
0.257
Weak
Teaching Level Suitability
0.278
Weak
Teacher Motivation Strategies
0.257
Weak
Teaching Time Management
0.237
Weak
The analysis presented in the table demonstrates the relationships between teacher delivery methods, teaching
level suitability, teacher motivational strategies, teaching time management, and students’ mathematics
proficiency. Overall, the findings indicate that all independent variables exhibit weak correlations with
mathematics proficiency, as classified under Davis’ (1971) strength scale. A significant positive correlation
was found between teaching-level suitability and mathematics proficiency (r = 0.257, p < 0.01). Although the
strength of association is weak, the result implies that when teachers adopt instructional approaches
appropriate to students’ cognitive and academic levels, learners tend to demonstrate higher proficiency in
mathematics. This supports the first hypothesis, confirming that teaching level suitability has a significant
positive relationship with mathematics proficiency.
Similarly, a significant positive correlation was observed between teacher delivery methods and mathematics
proficiency (r = 0.278, p < 0.05). Based on Davis’ scale, this relationship is also weak but meaningful,
suggesting that varied and effective instructional delivery enhances student understanding and performance.
The result validates the second hypothesis, which posits that teacher delivery methods are positively related to
mathematics proficiency.
Furthermore, teacher motivational strategies exhibited a significant positive correlation with mathematics
proficiency (r = 0.257, p < 0.01). Though weak, this association indicates that students benefit academically
when teachers employ motivational approaches such as encouragement, feedback, and goal setting. This
finding supports the third hypothesis that teacher motivational strategies contribute positively to mathematics
achievement.
Lastly, a significant positive relationship was identified between teaching time management and mathematics
proficiency (r = 0.237, p < 0.01). Despite the weak strength of correlation, the finding suggests that effective
allocation and utilization of instructional time can enhance learning outcomes. Hence, the fourth hypothesis
that teaching time management significantly influences mathematics proficiency is also supported.
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Sekolah Menengah Agama
Table 9: Strength of Variable Relationships with Mathematics Proficiency Level (Sekolah Menengah Agama)
Variables
Correlation Coefficient, r
Description of strength
Teacher Delivery Methods
0.488
Moderate
Teaching Level Suitability
0.422
Moderate
Teacher Motivation Strategies
0.449
Moderate
Teaching Time Management
0.294
Weak
The analysis reveals a significant positive correlation between teacher delivery methods and mathematics
proficiency (r = 0.488, p < 0.01). Based on Davis’ (1971) scale, this represents a moderate correlation,
indicating that effective instructional delivery such as the use of interactive techniques, clear explanations, and
varied teaching media is associated with higher student proficiency in mathematics. This finding supports the
first hypothesis, which posits that teacher delivery methods have a positive impact on mathematics
performance.
A moderate correlation was also identified between teaching-level suitability and mathematics proficiency (r =
0.422, p < 0.01). According to Davis’ classification, this suggests that aligning instructional content and
complexity with students’ learning readiness and cognitive levels contributes meaningfully to improved
achievement. Thus, the second hypothesis, asserting that teaching-level suitability positively correlates with
mathematics proficiency, is supported.
In addition, a significant positive correlation was found between teacher motivational strategies and
mathematics proficiency (r = 0.449, p < 0.01). This moderate relationship indicates that students tend to
perform better when teachers employ motivational approaches such as praise, encouragement, and constructive
feedback. The result affirms the third hypothesis, which proposes that teacher motivational strategies exert a
positive influence on mathematics proficiency.
Finally, the findings demonstrate a significant positive correlation between teaching time management and
mathematics proficiency (r = 0.294, p < 0.01). Although the relationship is weak, it nonetheless implies that
efficient allocation and management of instructional time can enhance students’ learning outcomes. This
supports the fourth hypothesis, confirming that teaching time management has a significant effect on
mathematics achievement.
Regression Analysis
Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan
Table 10: Results from Regression Analysis (Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan)
Dependent Variable
Independent Variables
β
BETA
t
Sig.
Mathematics Achievement (Y)
Constants
1.990
9.111
<0.001
Teacher Delivery Methods (X
1
)
0.073
0.070
0.956
0.339
Teaching Level Suitability (X
2
)
0.166
0.156
2.220
0.027
Teacher Motivation Strategies (X
3
)
0.050
0.051
0.659
0.510
Teaching Time Management (X
4
)
0.059
0.065
0.958
0.338
R
2
0.090
F
10.854
Sig F
<0.001
Table 10 presents the regression results examining the combined influence of teachers’ effort factors,
Teachers’ Teaching Approaches, Teaching-Level Suitability, Teachers’ Motivational Approaches, and
Teaching Time Management on Mathematics achievement among SMK students. The model yielded an R²
value of 0.090, indicating that approximately 9.0% of the variance in Mathematics achievement is explained
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by these four predictors. Although the overall model was statistically significant (F = 10.854, p < 0.001), the
relatively lower R² suggests that teacher-related factors exerted a modest collective influence on Mathematics
achievement among SMK students.
Among the predictors, only Teaching-Level Suitability (β = 0.166, t = 2.220, p = 0.027) demonstrated a
significant positive effect, implying that SMK students performed better when instructional content and
delivery were aligned with their learning capabilities and cognitive readiness. In contrast, Teachers’ Teaching
Approaches (β = 0.073, p = 0.339), Teachers’ Motivational Approaches (β = 0.050, p = 0.510), and Teaching
Time Management (β = 0.059, p = 0.338) were not statistically significant predictors. These findings indicate
that although teaching quality, motivation, and time use are relevant pedagogical aspects, their direct
contributions to achievement appear less pronounced within the SMK context.
This outcome suggests that effective differentiation of lesson difficulty and pacing to suit diverse student
abilities is the most critical determinant of success in SMK classrooms. The limited impact of other teaching
factors may be attributed to contextual challenges such as large class sizes, heavy curriculum demands, and
examination-oriented practices that constrain individualized engagement. Consistent with previous research
(Rahman et al., 2023; Norazman & Hassan, 2023), differentiated instruction enhances understanding and
retention, particularly for heterogeneous learning groups. Hence, strengthening teachers’ capacity for adaptive
instruction could significantly enhance learning outcomes in SMK settings.
Sekolah Menengah Agama
Table 11: Results from Regression Analysis (Sekolah Menengah Agama)
Dependent Variable
Independent Variables
β
BETA
t
Sig.
Mathematics Achievement (Y)
Constants
1.322
0.342
3.860
<0.001
Teacher Delivery Methods (X
1
)
0.409
0.149
2.750
0.007
Teaching Level Suitability (X
2
)
0.058
0.141
0.408
0.684
Teacher Motivation Strategies (X
3
)
0.157
0.132
1.192
0.235
Teaching Time Management (X
4
)
-0.115
0.087
-1.315
0.191
R
2
0.256
F
12.185
Sig F
<0.001
Table 11 presents the regression results analyzing the influence of the same four teacher related predictors on
Mathematics achievement among SMA students. The model produced an R² value of 0.256, indicating that
25.6% of the variance in Mathematics achievement is explained by Teachers’ Teaching Approaches, Teaching-
Level Suitability, Teachers’ Motivational Approaches, and Teaching Time Management collectively. The
model was statistically significant (F = 12.185, p < 0.001), suggesting a stronger predictive power compared to
the SMK model.
Among the independent variables, Teachers’ Teaching Approaches (β = 0.409, t = 2.750, p = 0.007) emerged
as the only significant positive predictor, highlighting the critical role of delivery quality in shaping
Mathematics achievement among SMA students. Effective instructional delivery characterized by clarity,
interactive engagement, and the use of diverse teaching techniques was positively associated with higher
performance. Conversely, Teaching-Level Suitability (β = 0.058, p = 0.684), Teachers’ Motivational
Approaches (β = 0.157, p = 0.235), and Teaching Time Management (β = –0.115, p = 0.191) were not
statistically significant, suggesting that while these factors contribute to the learning environment, their direct
effects are secondary when delivery quality is strong.
The results indicate that SMA students benefit most when teachers implement varied and student centered
delivery strategies that foster understanding and sustain engagement. This finding supports Areepattamannil
and Khine (2021) and Lopez and Gurat (2024), who reported that dynamic, interactive pedagogy enhances
conceptual mastery and interest in Mathematics. The higher R² value demonstrates that teacher related
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practices have a more substantial impact in SMA settings, possibly due to smaller class sizes, stronger
academic culture, and closer teacher–student relationships that facilitate effective delivery.
Overall, the regression outcomes for SMA emphasize that pedagogical excellence rather than structural or
motivational factors plays a decisive role in promoting Mathematics success within religious school contexts.
Continuous professional development focusing on instructional innovation and reflective teaching practices
may further enhance student outcomes in these environments.
Comparative Analysis of Correlation and Regression Results between Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan
(SMK) and Sekolah Menengah Agama (SMA)
The comparative analysis between SMK and SMA reveals distinct patterns in how teacher related factors,
Teachers’ Teaching Approaches, Teaching-Level Suitability, Teachers’ Motivational Approaches, and
Teaching Time Management relate to and predict students’ Mathematics achievement. The findings integrate
both the correlation and regression analyses to provide a comprehensive understanding of these relationships
across school contexts.
Correlation Analysis
The correlation results indicate that all four teacher-related factors were positively and significantly correlated
with Mathematics achievement in both SMK and SMA schools, although the strength of association varied
across contexts. Among SMA students, the correlations were generally stronger, ranging from moderate to
high (r = 0.422–0.488, p < 0.01), compared to SMK students, whose correlations were relatively weaker (r =
0.237–0.278, p < 0.01). Specifically, Teachers’ Teaching Approaches (r = 0.488) and Teachers’ Motivational
Approaches (r = 0.449) showed the strongest relationships in SMA, while Teaching-Level Suitability (r =
0.278) was the most prominent factor in SMK.
These results suggest that in SMA settings, effective pedagogical delivery and motivational engagement are
more closely linked to improved Mathematics performance, likely reflecting more structured environments and
smaller class sizes that enable personalized teaching. In contrast, SMK students’ achievement is more strongly
associated with how well instructional content matches their learning level, emphasizing the importance of
differentiated teaching practices in more heterogeneous classroom settings.
Regression Analysis
The regression findings further refine these relationships by identifying the unique contribution of each factor
when examined simultaneously. For SMK, the regression model was significant (F = 10.854, p < 0.001) but
explained only 9.0% of the variance in Mathematics achievement (R² = 0.090). Among the predictors, only
Teaching-Level Suitability (β = 0.166, p = 0.027) emerged as a significant positive contributor, confirming that
appropriately structured lessons that align with students’ cognitive readiness are essential for achievement in
SMK. The other factors, Teaching Approaches, Motivational Approaches, and Time Management were not
statistically significant, indicating that their direct effects were limited in this context.
Conversely, the SMA model demonstrated a stronger explanatory power (R² = 0.256, F = 12.185, p < 0.001),
where Teachers’ Teaching Approaches (β = 0.409, p = 0.007) was the only significant predictor. This finding
indicates that the quality of instructional delivery: clarity, interactivity, and creativity in teaching plays a
decisive role in enhancing SMA students’ Mathematics achievement. The remaining variables were not
significant, although their positive coefficients suggest a supportive but indirect influence on performance
outcomes.
Collectively, these findings highlight a fundamental difference in the pedagogical dynamics of SMK and
SMA. In SMK, Mathematics achievement depends more on how well the lesson content fits the students’
learning level, reflecting the importance of curriculum differentiation in larger and more academically diverse
classrooms. In SMA, performance is primarily driven by the quality of teachers’ delivery methods,
emphasizing active learning, effective communication, and teacher–student engagement within smaller, more
disciplined environments.
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The stronger correlations and higher R² value in SMA (25.6%) compared to SMK (9.0%) indicate that teacher-
related factors exert a greater overall influence on achievement within religious school settings. This may be
attributed to contextual advantages such as smaller class sizes, consistent behavioral expectations, and closer
teacher–student relationships that enhance instructional effectiveness. In contrast, the weaker predictive
strength in SMK implies that other unmeasured factors such as peer influence, socio-economic background, or
student motivation may play a larger role in shaping outcomes in mainstream public schools.
The comparative results suggest differentiated intervention strategies for the two school types. For SMK,
professional development should focus on adaptive instruction, curriculum alignment, and classroom
differentiation to address students’ varied proficiency levels. For SMA, continuous emphasis on innovative
pedagogical delivery and instructional engagement can further optimize performance. Future research may
incorporate mixed-method approaches to explore the contextual mechanisms such as classroom culture and
teacher–student interaction that mediate these statistical relationships.
Overall, the integration of correlation and regression results provides robust evidence that, while both SMK
and SMA teachers significantly influence Mathematics achievement, the pathways of influence differ. SMK
success is contingent upon instructional suitability, whereas SMA success is driven by teaching delivery
quality, reflecting distinct pedagogical ecologies within Malaysia’s dual secondary school system.
CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS
This study provides compelling evidence that teachers’ pedagogical practices, specifically teaching delivery
methods, teaching-level suitability, motivational strategies, and time management exert a measurable yet
varying influence on students’ mathematics achievement at the SPM level. The results indicate that while all
teacher-related factors have positive correlations with mathematics performance, the strength of these
relationships differs notably between school types. SMA students, for instance, demonstrate stronger
associations across most variables, particularly in teacher delivery methods and motivational strategies,
whereas SMK students show weaker but still significant correlations. These findings suggest that effective
teaching is not merely about delivering content but about adapting pedagogy to students’ cognitive readiness,
managing instructional time strategically, and maintaining consistent motivation throughout the learning
process.
The overall weak to moderate correlations also reveal that improving mathematics proficiency requires more
than isolated teaching adjustments; it necessitates systemic attention to the broader instructional ecosystem.
Teacher preparation, classroom culture, school leadership, and institutional support must work in tandem to
cultivate effective teaching practices. The disparities observed between SMK and SMA further point to
structural inequities in instructional environments possibly related to class size, school management styles, or
emphasis on discipline and accountability. Hence, while teachers’ efforts are central, these must be reinforced
through a coherent educational infrastructure that prioritizes professional growth, adequate teaching resources,
and pedagogical innovation.
Overall, this study answers its main research question by confirming that teacher-related factors particularly
teaching-level suitability in SMK and delivery methods in SMA are significant determinants of students’
mathematics achievement. Theoretically, it contributes to pedagogical discourse by illustrating how school
context moderates the relationship between teacher factors and student performance. Practically, it emphasizes
the necessity of differentiated instruction, time management, and motivational engagement in sustaining
mathematical achievement. From a policy perspective, the findings align with national education reforms
under the Malaysia Education Blueprint (2013–2025) and Sustainable Development Goal 4, reinforcing the
centrality of teacher quality to equitable education. In conclusion, effective teacher practices remain the
cornerstone of mathematics success, requiring ongoing investment in teacher training and systemic support to
ensure sustainable educational improvement.
While the study provides valuable empirical insights, several limitations should be acknowledged. The use of
convenience sampling within a single district (Masjid Tanah, Melaka) limits the generalizability of findings to
other regions. The moderate sample size and reliance on self-reported data may also introduce response bias or
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overestimation of certain constructs. Recognizing these limitations demonstrates critical reflexivity and
strengthens the interpretation of findings. Future research should therefore include larger, more diverse
samples and adopt mixed-methods or longitudinal designs to capture the evolving nature of teacher–student
interactions and their cumulative impact on mathematics achievement.
Based on the study’s outcomes, several key recommendations are proposed. At the classroom level, teachers
should prioritize adaptive teaching strategies that match students’ cognitive readiness, utilize varied
instructional delivery methods, and integrate motivational techniques to sustain engagement. Students, in turn,
should adopt self-regulated learning habits, reflecting greater ownership and accountability for their progress.
At the institutional level, schools should strengthen professional learning communities (PLCs), facilitate peer
observation, and provide structured feedback to encourage reflective practice among teachers. Continuous
professional development focusing on differentiated instruction, time management, and motivational pedagogy
should be institutionalized. At the policy level, the Ministry of Education should enhance teacher training
curricula by embedding modules on adaptive pedagogy and formative assessment, while also granting greater
instructional autonomy to teachers to manage classroom pacing according to student needs. Policymakers are
encouraged to integrate measures of teaching quality and classroom climate into national evaluation
frameworks and to provide incentives for pedagogical innovation.
Collectively, these recommendations underscore that raising mathematics achievement requires a multi-
layered approach empowering teachers, engaging students, and supporting schools through coherent policy and
resources. With deliberate attention to these dimensions, Malaysia can strengthen mathematics education in
alignment with its broader educational transformation goals.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was supported by Universiti Islam Melaka (UNIMEL) Financial support was provided through
the Incentive Research Grant 2.0 (GPI 2.0) GPI24/F3/06. The authors gratefully acknowledge this funding
support.
Conflict Of Interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this manuscript.
Data Availbility
The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The
data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.
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