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Epidemiological Characteristics and Prevalence of Gastrointestinal
Parasites in Small Ruminants in Toro Local Government Area of
Bauchi State, Nigeria
Moses Ojonugwa Oguche*
1
, Yunusa Yahuza Adams
2
, Ebi-Erefa Apollos
1
, Hambolu Sunday, Emmanuel
1
,
Logyang Lot Emmanuel
1
, Mafulul Bako Joshua
1
, Mark Samson
1
, Jerry Bannister Zachary
3
, Ike
Geoffrey Okonkwo
4
1
National Veterinary Research Institute, Vom, Plateau State, Nigeria
2
Federal College of Animal Health and Production Technology, Vom, Plateau State, Nigeria
3
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi State, Nigeria
4
Federal Ministry of Livestock Development, Abuja, Nigeria
*Corresponding Author
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000471
Received: 15 October 2025; Accepted: 23 October 2025; Published: 17 November 2025
ABSTRACT
Gastrointestinal (GI) parasites are a major constraint to small ruminant production, causing poor growth, reduced
productivity, and economic losses. This study investigated the prevalence and distribution of GI parasites in
sheep and goats in Toro Local Government Area (LGA), Bauchi State, Nigeria. A total of 210 small ruminants
(101 sheep and 109 goats) were randomly sampled across three districts (Jama’a, Lame, and Toro). Faecal
samples were examined using flotation and sedimentation techniques, and data were analyzed in RStudio using
Chi-square and Fisher’s exact tests, with significance set at p < 0.05.
The overall prevalence of GI parasites was 82.9% (95% CI: 75.4–83.9). Goats (68.8%) were significantly more
infected than sheep (43.6%) (p < 0.001). Males (64.7%) had higher infection rates than females (52.8%) (p =
0.004). District-level prevalence varied, with Toro showing the highest burden (73.8%) compared to Lame
(56.2%) and Jama’a (41.7%) (p < 0.001). Age was not significantly associated with infection (p = 0.15). The
most common parasites identified were Coccidia spp. (18.6%), Haemonchus spp. (12.4%), Fasciola spp.
(16.2%), and Paramphistomum spp. (9.0%). The flotation method detected more parasites (87.1%) than
sedimentation (25.2%).
This study reveals that GI parasites remain highly prevalent among small ruminants in Toro LGA, with species,
sex, and district significantly influencing infection rates. The high burden underscores the need for integrated
control strategies, including strategic deworming, improved grazing management, snail control in fascioliasis
endemic areas, and farmer education. These interventions are critical to improving small ruminant health,
productivity, and rural livelihoods in Nigeria.
Keywords: Gastrointestinal parasites; Small ruminants; Prevalence; Epidemiology; Nigeria; Toro LGA
INTRODUCTION
Sheep and goats (small ruminants) are vital to rural livelihoods across northern Nigeria, including Bauchi State.
They serve as primary sources of income, protein, savings, and social capital, particularly for smallholder and
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pastoralist systems. However, their productivity is significantly undermined by parasitic infections, especially
gastrointestinal (GI) parasites, which cause weight loss, anemia, morbidity, and economic losses (1).
A high pooled prevalence (58%) of GI helminth infections in small ruminants across Nigeria (2011–2019)
underscores the endemic nature of these parasites. Seasonal trends with prevalence often peaking in dry or
earlypostrainy periods suggest climate-driven epidemiological cycles (2-4).
A study in Bauchi Local Government Area (2021) analyzed fecal samples from 100 goats. The overall prevalence
was 78%, with young goats showing 100% infection and adult goats 74.1%. Males were more affected (93.3%)
than females (75.3%). Key parasites identified included Trichostrongylus spp., Ostertagia spp., Haemonchus
contortus, and Coccidia spp. Mixed infections occurred in 30% of cases (1).
In November 2024 survey examined 50 sheep and 50 goats at Bauchi Central Abattoir. Overall, prevalence was
47.5% in goats and 52.5% in sheep. Detected parasites included Strongyloides (34.7%), Fasciola spp. (15.3%),
Oesophagostomum columbianum (12.2%), Cryptosporidium (9.2%), Eimeria spp., and various helminths such
as Dicrocoelium, Trichuris, and Haemonchus. Females had significantly higher prevalence (75% vs. 25%), and
younger animals also had higher rates than adults (5). In Gadau, a study under traditional management reported
an overall helminth prevalence of 42.7% among goats and sheep. The infection varied by age, sex, and species,
with goats generally more affected than sheep (3, 4).
Jalingo Abattoir, Taraba State About 42.7% of 914 small ruminant samples were positive, with Haemonchus,
Oesophagostomum, Strongyloides, and Ostertagia identified. Adults were more infected than younger animals
(6). In Shendam, Plateau State: Among 600 samples (sheep and goats), overall prevalence was 78.8% with goats
(90.8%) significantly more infected than sheep (71.2%). Parasite genera included Haemonchus, Trichuris,
Oesophagostomum, Fasciola, and Coccidia (7).
Toro Local Government Area lies within the northern Guinea savanna, characterized by a customary single rainy
season (roughly April–October, peaking in August) followed by a prolonged dry season. This climate facilitates
selective survival and transmission of infective larvae, with seasonal peaks likely during or just after the rains
when pasture contamination is highest (2, 3). Though no published data exist specifically for Toro, the patterns
observed in broader Bauchi and neighbouring regions suggest a similar high endemic burden, especially among
young stock and under poor management regimes.
Haemonchus contortus is a highly prolific and hematophagous nematode, along with other strongyle-type
parasites such as Oesophagostomum, Tricostrongylus, and Trichuris species, are among the principal causes of
gastroenteritis, anemia, weight loss, and reduced productivity in small ruminants. These infections typically
reach their peak during the rainy season, when warm and humid environmental conditions favour parasite
transmission (8, 15). Trematodes such as Fasciola and Dicrocoelium spp. Compromise liver and bile duct
function, leading to anemia, impaired growth, reduced fertility, and occasionally death (5, 9). Similarly,
Paramphistomum spp. (amphistomes) may cause severe enteritis during their immature stages, resulting in
significant mortality under heavy infections (9). Protozoan parasites, including Eimeria and Cryptosporidium,
are commonly associated with diarrhoea, stunted growth, and high morbidity in young animals, and were
frequently detected in samples collected from Bauchi central abattoir (5).
Although several studies have been conducted in neighboring Local Government Areas (LGAs) such as Jos
North, Jos East, and Lere, as well as in regional abattoirs, there remains a paucity of on-farm and longitudinal
data on gastrointestinal parasites prevalence in Toro LGA. A focused epidemiological investigation in this area
is therefore warranted to fill this knowledge gap and generate evidence-based insights for improved parasites
control, extension services, and livestock health policies. This study aims to determine the prevalence, species
composition, and infection intensity of gastrointestinal parasites among small ruminants in Toro LGA, thereby
providing a foundation for the development of more targeted and sustainable intervention strategies.
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MATERIALS AND METHOD
Study Area
Toro is a local Government Area of Bauchi state, Nigeria. Toro local government headquarter is in the town of
Toro. The local government has three (3) district i.e Toro, Jama’a and lame district. The local government is the
largest local government in Nigeria and West African in particular. It has an area of 6,9322km and a population
of 350,404 at the census 2006. Toro local government is rich in culture and has diverse ethnic group such as
Duguza, Fulani and kaiwari among other (10).
Sample Collection
Approximately 5g of faeces were aseptically collected per rectum from sheep (n = 101) and goats (n = 109)
across households in Toro L.G.A. between April and November 2024. Animals were selected by systematic
random sampling, and samples were labelled with species, sex, age, and districts. A total of 210 samples were
obtained and transported to the Parasitology Laboratory, National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI), Vom,
for analysis.
Sample Processing
Faecal samples were processed using both flotation and sedimentation techniques. Gastrointestinal nematodes
were identified through the standard flotation method described by Charles (11), with sodium chloride (NaCl)
employed as the flotation solution. Trematode eggs were detected using the sedimentation technique, following
the procedure outlined by Bogale (12).
Statistical Analysis
Data were coded into appropriate variables and entered into Microsoft Excel for management. Statistical analyses
were performed using RStudio (13). Prevalence was estimated as the proportion of positive samples relative to
the total number of samples examined, expressed as a percentage. Differences in prevalence across species, age
groups, sex, and districts were assessed using the Chi-square (χ²) test or Fisher’s exact test where appropriate.
Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.
RESULTS
Table 1: Epidemiological characteristics of small ruminants sampled in Toro LGA, Bauchi State (n = 210)
Characteristic
Category
Frequency (n)
Percentage (%)
Age
Adult
135
64.3
Young
75
35.7
Species
Sheep
101
48.1
Goat
109
51.9
District
Jama'a
72
34.3
Lame
73
34.8
Toro
65
31.0
Sex
Female
142
67.6
Male
68
32.4
A total of 210 small ruminants (sheep and goats) were sampled across three districts of Toro LGA. Adults
constituted the majority of the animals examined (64.3%, n = 135), while young animals accounted for 35.7%
(n = 75). Species distribution showed that 48.1% (n = 101) were sheep and 51.9% (n = 109) were goats. The
animals were sampled from Jama’a district (34.3%, n = 72), Lame district (34.8%, n = 73), and Toro district
(31.0%, n = 65). With respect to sex, females represented 67.6% (n = 142) of the sampled animals, while males
accounted for 32.4% (n = 68) (Table 1).
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Table 2: The prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in small ruminants based on host and demographic
characteristics
The prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in small ruminants based on host and demographic characteristics is
presented in Table 2. Goats had a significantly higher prevalence (68.8%) compared to sheep (43.6%) (p <
0.001). Adults (59.3%) and young animals (52.0%) showed no significant difference in prevalence (p = 0.15).
Across districts, prevalence varied significantly, ranging from 41.7% in Jama’a, 56.2% in Lame, to 73.8% in
Toro (p < 0.001). By sex, males recorded a higher prevalence (64.7%) than females (52.8%), and this difference
was statistically significant (p < 0.004).
Table 3: Distribution of the Parasites based on Diagnostic Methods
Nematode No of Percentage Trematode No of Percentage
Parasite (%) Parasite (%)
Haemonchus spp 26 12.4 Fasciola spp 34 16.2
Oesophagostomum spp 20 9.5 NPF 157 74.8
Trichostrongylus spp 18 8.6 Paramphistomum spp 19 9.0
Coccidia spp 39 18.6
Moniezia spp 2 1.0
NPF 15 7.1
Strongyloides spp 14 6.7
Bunostomum spp 2 1.0
Floatation Sedimentation
*NPF-no parasite found
Table 3 summarizes the distribution of gastrointestinal parasites detected in sheep and goats using both floatation
and sedimentation techniques. Among the nematodes, Coccidia spp. (18.6%) and Haemonchus spp. (12.4%)
were the most frequently detected, followed by Oesophagostomum spp. (9.5%), Trichostrongylus spp. (8.6%),
and Strongyloides spp. (6.7%). Moniezia spp. and Bunostomum spp. were detected at a much lower prevalence
(1.0% each). For trematodes, Fasciola spp. was the most prevalent (16.2%), followed by Paramphistomum spp.
(9.0%). A large proportion of samples (74.8%) tested showed no trematode infection (NPF).
Table 4: Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites based on diagnostic methods
Method No of Prevalence 95% CI
Positive (%)
Floatation 121 57.6 81.6 – 91.2
Sedimentation 53 25.2 19.6 – 31.8
Overall (both) 174 82.9 75.4 – 83.9
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Table 4 presents the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites detected by the two diagnostic techniques employed.
Using the flotation method, 121 animals tested positive, giving a prevalence of 57.6% (95% CI: 51.6–61.2). The
sedimentation method identified 53 positive cases, corresponding to a prevalence of 25.2% (95% CI: 19.6–31.8).
When results from both methods were combined, the overall prevalence was 82.9% (95% CI: 75.4–83.9).
DISCUSSION
This study revealed a very high overall prevalence (82.9%) of gastrointestinal parasites among small ruminants
in Toro LGA, Bauchi State, confirming that parasitic infections remain a major constraint to small ruminant
production in northern Nigeria. Goats (51.9%) were significantly more affected than sheep (48.1%). This result
aligns with previous reports indicating that the browsing and forage behaviour of goats predisposes them to
greater exposure to infective larvae present on shrubs and ground herbage (1, 7).
Age did not significantly influence prevalence, suggesting uniform exposure across all age groups under
communal grazing systems, although some studies reported higher susceptibility in younger animals (4).
However, the absence of a clear age effect at the analysis level suggests mixed patterns across parasite taxa and
reinforces the need for taxa-specific analysis.
Statistical analysis of the data on the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites among sex groups shows that there
was significance difference (p < 0.004). Males (64.7%) had higher prevalence rates than females (52.8%), which
may reflect lower immunity or management factors such as earlier sale or stress due to breeding activities (5).
District was found to be significantly associated with the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites (p < 0.001).
Marked geographical heterogeneity was evident: animals in Toro district showed the highest prevalence (73.8%),
highlighting that local ecological and management conditions strongly influence infection risk. These results
emphasize that control strategies must be tailored to local settings, what works in one district may not suffice in
another, even within the same region or country.
Similar spatial variation in parasite prevalence has been documented in other studies in Nigeria, reinforcing that
heterogeneity is common rather than exceptional (2). In a meta-analysis of Nigerian ruminants, Banwo et al.
(2025) also reported substantial regional differences in prevalence rates, with the North-Central zone showing
high pooled prevalence (74%) (16). other studies highlighted wide variations across states, ranges from 10.9 %
to 95 % underlining wide intra-country heterogeneity (15, 2). Karshima and Karshima (2020) also observed
district-level variability linked to environment and management (8). Comparable findings were reported in
Ethiopia, where district-level variation was linked to altitude, grazing patterns, and moisture (8).
Thus, our findings in Toro LGA reflect a broader pattern. However, parasite prevalence often exhibits strong
spatial structure both within and between countries. This adds weight to the view that effective parasitic control
must incorporate geographic risk mapping, ecological stratification, and management practices as integral
components of intervention design.
Parasite distribution pattern highlighted Coccidia spp. and strongyles (Haemonchus spp. in particular) as
dominant, consistent with findings across northern Nigeria (1, 7). The high detection of Fasciola spp. indicates
ongoing transmission of trematodes in irrigated and swampy areas, supported by the presence of suitable snail
intermediate hosts (5, 9).
The flotation method demonstrated superior sensitivity compared to sedimentation, reflecting its efficiency in
detecting light nematode eggs and coccidia oocysts, whereas sedimentation remains more suited for heavier
trematode eggs. This methodological difference aligns with previous diagnostic evaluations (14). The practical
corollary is that prevalence and burden estimates drawn from a single technique will under or over represent
particular parasite groups unless the diagnostic limitations are explicitly acknowledged (14).
Overall, the study underscores the endemic nature and diversity of gastrointestinal parasites in small ruminants
in Toro LGA. Effective control requires integrated approaches, including strategic anthelmintic treatment,
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improved grazing management, and snail control in Fascioliasis-endemic areas, and farmer education on
sustainable parasite control practices.
CONCLUSION
This study underscores the high burden of gastrointestinal parasites in small ruminants in northern Nigeria,
posing a significant threat to animal health and productivity. The findings are highly relevant because sheep and
goats are vital to rural households as sources of income, nutrition, and livelihood security. By providing current
epidemiological data, the study offers critical evidence to guide veterinary interventions, inform policymakers,
and support sustainable parasite control programs. Effective management will not only improve small ruminant
productivity but also enhance food security and strengthen rural livelihoods in Nigeria.
Funding Declaration: None
Consent to Publish: Not applicable
Ethics and Consent to Participate: Not applicable
Data Availability: No new data were generated or analysed in support of this research
Author Contribution: M.O.O. and E.E.E conceptualised the study; M.O.O., E.E.E and Y.Y.A wrote the first
draft of the manuscript; M.O.O., J.B.Z and H.S.E. prepared the tables; all authors reviewed and gave approval
of the final drafted manuscript.
Competing Interest: The authors declared no competing interest.
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