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Imperatives of Bilingual Sign Language in Language Development of

Learners with Hearing Impairment in Nigeria

Nwachukwu, K.E., Bassey, M.C., Sampson, G. S., Udoma, E. P., Mbono V. I., Uka E. E., Usoh, N. I.,

Icha, P. I., & Thompson, D. N

Department Of Early Childhood and Special Education, Faculty of Education, University of Uyo Uyo

Nigeria

DOI:

https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000049

Received: 22 September 2025; Accepted: 27 September 2025; Published: 03 November 2025

ABSTRACT

Bilingual sign language has emerged as a critical tool for the linguistic, cognitive, and educational

development of learners with hearing impairment, offering a pathway to equity and inclusion in diverse

societies. This paper examines the imperatives of bilingual sign language in Nigeria, emphasizing its role in

promoting language development, literacy outcomes, social integration, and communication competence

among deaf learners. Anchored on Cummins’ Linguistic Interdependence Hypothesis, the paper highlights

how a strong foundation in Nigerian Sign Language (NSL) can transfer to mastery of written English, thereby

enabling academic progression and lifelong learning. While significant challenges persist including the lack of

formal recognition of NSL, inadequate teacher training, insufficient learning resources, negative societal

attitudes, and limited funding emerging opportunities and policy windows provide grounds for optimism.

These include global disability rights frameworks, rising advocacy movements, the growth of digital learning

tools, reforms in teacher education, and momentum toward inclusive education policies. The paper argues that

the institutionalization of bilingual sign language in Nigerian schools is both a linguistic right and a

developmental necessity. It concludes that by fostering cognitive growth, literacy advancement, social

inclusion, and communicative competence; bilingual sign language can bridge the gap between deaf learners

and their hearing peers, positioning them for meaningful participation in national development. The paper

recommended amongst others that Non-Governmental Organizations should strengthen partnerships with

organizations like the Nigerian National Association of the Deaf (NNAD) to combat stigma and promote

societal acceptance of bilingual sign language as a tool for inclusion.

Keywords: Sign language, bilingual sign language, hearing impairment, language development

INTRODUCTION

Nigeria faces a critical challenge: learners with hearing impairment often lack sufficient access to natural

language during early development, which significantly impedes their cognitive, emotional, and educational

growth (Asonye et al., 2018). In such contexts, bilingual sign language the use of a visual native sign language

alongside a written or spoken language emerges not merely as an instructional option but as an existential

necessity. Sign languages, with their unique grammars and internal structures, serve as fully-fledged languages

that support not only communication but also identity formation and inclusion within Deaf communities

(Asonye et al., 2018).

Extensive research into bimodal bilingualism visual and oral language fluency demonstrates notable

advantages in cognitive flexibility, syntactic complexity, creative thinking, and academic performance among

deaf learners (Fischer et al., 2003; Kushalnagar et al., 2010; Bialystok et al., 2007). For instance, Wilbur

(2001) and Chamberlain and Mayberry (2008) highlight how signing proficiency correlates strongly with

improved reading achievement, while Kushalnagar et al. (2010) show enhanced attention-switching

capabilities in bimodal bilinguals. These findings collectively underscore that bilingual sign language

instruction is not only affirming linguistically but also academically transformative.

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Within the Nigerian educational space, Nigerian Sign Language (NSL) a variant heavily influenced by

American Sign Language has become widely adopted in formal settings, while several indigenous sign

languages like Hausa Sign Language and Yoruba Sign Language continue to thrive within specific Deaf

communities (Asonye et al., 2018; Wikipedia contributors, 2025a; Wikipedia contributors, 2025b). Sadly,

official recognition of these languages remains absent, significantly limiting their integration into policy,

curriculum, and teacher education (Wikipedia contributors, 2025a).

Moreover, Nigeria has international obligations as articulated in Article 24 of the UN Convention on the

Rights of Persons with Disabilities and reinforced by the Sustainable Development Goals to ensure inclusive

quality education, including sign language access and the promotion of Deaf linguistic identity (NNAD, 2018).

Recognizing this imperative, civil society advocacy groups have urged the government to formally include

sign language in national curricula and to elevate its status as an official language to promote equity,

accessibility, and meaningful inclusion (NNAD, 2024).

Hearing impairment refers to a reduction in hearing ability, ranging from mild loss to profound deafness, and

can be unilateral (one ear) or bilateral (both ears). It may occur as conductive hearing loss (affecting the outer

or middle ear), sensorineural loss (affecting the inner ear or auditory nerve), or a combination of both

(Wikipedia contributors, 2025). The condition is often classified as either prelingual (before the acquisition of

language) or postlingual (after language has been acquired), with prelingual hearing loss posing the greatest

risk to language development and literacy outcomes (Effect of Early Intervention, 2015).

Without timely intervention, hearing impairment can severely restrict a child’s ability to develop spoken or

written language, leading to long-term educational and social disadvantages (Hall et al., 2017). However,

scholars emphasize that hearing impairment does not inherently preclude language acquisition; rather, the

barrier arises when children lack access to an accessible first language, such as sign language, during the

critical period of development (Kushalnagar et al., 2010). Thus, the imperative for Nigeria and similar

multilingual contexts is to provide early sign bilingual education that ensures both linguistic competence and

broader inclusion.

Bilingual sign language refers to educational and communicative practices where learners acquire proficiency

in both a sign language and a spoken or written language. This is commonly conceptualized within the

bilingual–bicultural (Bi-Bi) model, in which the natural sign language of the Deaf community serves as the

first language (L1), while the dominant spoken/written language of the wider society functions as the second

language (L2) (Swanwick and Gregory, 2007). Such a model recognizes the linguistic and cultural identity of

Deaf individuals while also equipping them to participate fully in mainstream education and social life. For

example, in Nigeria, learners often use Nigerian Sign Language (NSL) alongside English, allowing them to

engage academically and socially across Deaf and hearing contexts (Asonye et al., 2018).

Research on bimodal bilingualism shows that sign bilingual learners demonstrate enhanced cognitive and

linguistic flexibility compared to their monolingual peers (Emmorey et al., 2002). Sign language not only

facilitates access to early communication but also supports literacy development in the written form of the

spoken language (Chamberlain and Mayberry, 2008). Therefore, bilingual sign language is not simply an

instructional strategy; it is a linguistic and cultural necessity that enables deaf learners to thrive cognitively,

academically, and socially.

The paper is anchored on Cummins’ Linguistic Interdependence Hypothesis, a key principle within the broader

framework of bilingual education. PropoJim Csed by ummins in 1970s, the hypothesis posits that proficiency

in a first language (L1) can transfer positively to the acquisition of a second language (L2), provided that

learners are given adequate exposure and motivation in both languages (Cummins, 1979, 1981). The theory

emphasizes that underlying cognitive and academic proficiencies are common across languages, such that

skills acquired in one language whether in reading, writing, or problem-solving can support development in

another. The major tenet, therefore, is that strong competence in the first language does not hinder, but rather

facilitates, the acquisition of subsequent languages (Cummins, 2000).

Applied to this study, Cummins’ hypothesis underscores the imperative of bilingual sign language for learners

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with hearing impairment in Nigeria. Sign language, functioning as L1, provides an accessible linguistic

foundation that supports cognitive development, literacy, and communication skills. These proficiencies can

then transfer to mastery of written English or other spoken/written languages used in academic settings. In the

Nigerian context, where English is the primary language of instruction, the hypothesis validates the use of

Nigerian Sign Language (NSL) as a bridge, enabling deaf learners to achieve educational inclusion and

academic success. Thus, the Linguistic Interdependence Hypothesis provides a strong theoretical justification

for promoting bilingual sign language in language development among hearing-impaired learners

(Nwachukwu, & Anyanwu 2023).

Perspectives on Bilingual Sign Language and Education of the Hearing-Impaired

Nigerian Context: Policies and Practices

In Nigeria, the education of learners with hearing impairment has historically been shaped by oralist traditions,

with emphasis placed on speech training and lipreading rather than full recognition of sign language. While

Nigerian Sign Language (NSL), a variant influenced by American Sign Language (ASL), has become the most

widely used in schools, the federal government has yet to formally recognize it as an official language of

instruction (Asonye, Umeasiegbu, and Omede, 2018). The National Policy on Education (2013) provides broad

provisions for inclusive education and the integration of persons with special needs but falls short of explicitly

mandating bilingual sign language approaches. This policy gap has contributed to the limited

institutionalization of sign bilingualism in Nigerian schools for the deaf (Adigun, 2020).

Practices in deaf education across Nigeria vary widely. Some specialized schools attempt to combine sign

language with written English, while others continue to emphasize oralism, often due to teachers’ limited sign

language proficiency (Omede and Bakare, 2014). Furthermore, indigenous sign languages such as Hausa Sign

Language in the North and Yoruba Sign Language in the Southwest remain largely undocumented and

excluded from formal education, despite their cultural significance (Asonye et al., 2018). Teacher training

institutions also rarely include sign bilingual pedagogy in their curricula, leaving many educators ill-equipped

to implement bilingual education effectively. As a result, deaf learners face inconsistent and inadequate

language exposure, which undermines their literacy and academic outcomes (Omede and Bakare, 2014).

Several challenges hinder the adoption of bilingual sign language in Nigeria. Key among them are insufficient

government funding, lack of standardized teaching materials, and societal attitudes that continue to frame

deafness primarily as a disability rather than as a linguistic minority identity (Adigun, 2020). Moreover,

advocacy efforts by organizations such as the Nigerian National Association of the Deaf (NNAD) have not yet

translated into strong legislative backing or curricular reforms that would establish sign language as a right

rather than a privilege. These systemic obstacles highlight the urgent need for Nigeria to align its educational

practices with global best practices that view bilingual sign language not only as an educational tool but as a

fundamental right for learners with hearing impairment.

Linguistic and Cognitive Development Benefits

One of the foremost imperatives of bilingual sign language in Nigeria lies in its capacity to foster robust

linguistic development among learners with hearing impairment. Sign language provides a natural and fully

accessible first language (L1) through which deaf children can acquire grammar, vocabulary, and discourse

skills without the barriers associated with oralist approaches (Swanwick and Gregory, 2007). When paired

with written English as a second language (L2), learners are able to transfer their linguistic competence across

modalities, reinforcing literacy and academic success (Cummins, 2000). In the Nigerian context, where

English dominates as the medium of instruction, a bilingual model ensures that deaf learners are not

linguistically excluded but are instead equipped to participate meaningfully in both Deaf and hearing

communities (Asonye, Umeasiegbu, and Omede, 2018).

Beyond linguistic growth, bilingual sign language promotes cognitive development, enhancing skills such as

problem-solving, metalinguistic awareness, and executive functioning. Research shows that bimodal bilinguals

those proficient in both sign and written/spoken languages demonstrate greater mental flexibility and attention-

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switching capabilities than their monolingual peers (Kushalnagar, Hannay, and Hernandez, 2010). Early access

to sign language supports the development of working memory and abstract reasoning, laying the foundation

for stronger academic performance (Mayberry, 2007). For Nigerian deaf learners, who often face delayed or

limited language exposure, the use of bilingual sign language can mitigate risks of language deprivation and

enable more typical developmental trajectories.

Furthermore, the integration of bilingual sign language enhances literacy outcomes, which are often a major

challenge in deaf education. Studies indicate that deaf learners who first acquire sign language achieve higher

levels of reading comprehension and written expression compared to those educated exclusively through

oralist methods (Chamberlain and Mayberry, 2008). This is because sign language provides a linguistic

scaffold that allows learners to understand the structural and semantic features of written English. In Nigeria,

where literacy is a critical determinant of academic progression and employability, the cognitive and linguistic

benefits of bilingual sign language position it as an indispensable tool for advancing both educational equity

and social inclusion

Social Inclusion and Communication Competence

The adoption of bilingual sign language significantly advances social inclusion for learners with hearing

impairment. Sign language enables deaf individuals to participate fully in their immediate social and cultural

environments, fostering a sense of belonging within the Deaf community while also providing the linguistic

bridge to engage with the wider hearing society (Ladd, 2003). In Nigeria, where stigma and misconceptions

about deafness often lead to marginalization, the institutionalization of bilingual sign language can shift

perceptions by recognizing deaf learners not as disabled, but as members of a linguistic minority with valuable

contributions to make (Adigun, 2020). This recognition has the potential to reduce social isolation and

strengthen the inclusion of deaf persons in education, employment, and civic participation.

In addition to social integration, bilingual sign language enhances communication competence by equipping

learners with multiple linguistic resources for interaction. Proficiency in Nigerian Sign Language (NSL) allows

effective communication within the Deaf community, while competence in written English expands access to

educational opportunities, employment, and social networks dominated by hearing individuals (Asonye,

Umeasiegbu, and Omede, 2018). This dual competence is particularly crucial in Nigeria, where English is the

language of instruction and a prerequisite for academic mobility. By enabling learners to navigate both

linguistic worlds, bilingual education strengthens self-confidence, promotes self-advocacy, and enhances

lifelong learning.

Moreover, bilingual sign language fosters intercultural communication, bridging the divide between Deaf and

hearing communities. When teachers, peers, and family members learn sign language, it creates inclusive

communicative environments where deaf learners can thrive both academically and socially (Swanwick,

2016). In Nigeria, where few schools actively promote family and community involvement in sign

bilingualism, such initiatives could dismantle barriers to communication and improve relationships within

families and classrooms. Ultimately, by supporting communicative competence, bilingual sign language not

only empowers learners with hearing impairment but also advances Nigeria’s broader goals of inclusive

education and social equity.

Educational Advancement and Literacy Outcomes

Bilingual sign language is central to the educational advancement of learners with hearing impairment, as it

provides the linguistic foundation necessary for academic engagement. Early exposure to sign language

enables deaf children to acquire complex concepts in science, mathematics, and the humanities without the

barriers imposed by speech-only instruction (Marschark and Hauser, 2012). In Nigeria, where curriculum

delivery is heavily reliant on English, sign bilingualism ensures that deaf learners are not left behind but are

given the tools to comprehend and participate meaningfully in classroom interactions. This approach shifts the

focus from disability to ability, affirming that with the right language support, learners with hearing

impairment can perform on par with their hearing peers (Nwachukwu, & Anyanwu,2021).

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Another critical outcome of bilingual sign language is the enhancement of literacy development, which is often

cited as a persistent challenge in deaf education. Research has shown that deaf learners who first acquire sign

language achieve higher levels of reading comprehension and written expression than those educated through

oralist approaches (Chamberlain and Mayberry, 2008). Sign language serves as a cognitive and linguistic

scaffold, helping learners make sense of phonological, syntactic, and semantic aspects of written English. In

Nigeria, where literacy is tied to academic progression and employability, the integration of Nigerian Sign

Language (NSL) with written English offers a pragmatic solution to the low literacy levels often recorded

among deaf students (Adigun, 2020).

Furthermore, bilingual sign language contributes to the long-term academic success of deaf learners by

promoting critical thinking, metacognition, and higher-order learning skills. Learners with a strong sign

language foundation are better positioned to access abstract content, engage in collaborative learning, and

achieve at higher levels across the curriculum (Swanwick, 2016). For Nigerian schools, which often face

resource limitations and inadequate teacher training, adopting a bilingual approach represents not only a

pedagogical imperative but also a policy necessity for achieving inclusive education goals. By embedding

bilingual sign language into mainstream and special education systems, Nigeria can ensure that deaf learners

are not excluded from the promise of education as a driver of national development.

Challenges to Bilingual Sign Language in Nigeria

1. Lack of Official Recognition of Nigerian Sign Language (NSL): One of the greatest challenges is

the absence of formal recognition of NSL as an official language of instruction in Nigerian schools.

Although English is the official medium for education, sign language remains marginalized, treated

more as a support tool than a legitimate language. This policy gap denies deaf learners the right to learn

in their natural language, contrary to global best practices and the UN Convention on the Rights of

Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) (United Nations, 2006). Without legal backing, schools are

inconsistent in their adoption of bilingual methods, leaving learners vulnerable to linguistic exclusion.

2. Inadequate Teacher Training and Competence: Most teachers in schools for the deaf lack

proficiency in NSL and are not trained in bilingual pedagogical strategies (Omede and Bakare, 2014).

Teacher education curricula in Nigeria rarely prioritize sign language fluency or bilingual instructional

methods, which results in ineffective teaching and learning processes. This inadequacy means that even

when bilingual policies are introduced, they cannot be fully implemented due to a lack of qualified

manpower. Continuous professional development and inclusion of sign bilingual pedagogy in teacher

training programs remain largely absent (Nwachukwu, & Anyanwu,2021).

3. Scarcity of Teaching and Learning Resources: The implementation of bilingual sign language is

hindered by a shortage of standardized teaching materials in NSL. Textbooks, digital resources, and

classroom aids tailored for deaf learners are scarce, leaving teachers to improvise. Furthermore,

indigenous sign languages (such as Yoruba and Hausa Sign Languages) remain undocumented and

excluded from instructional materials (Asonye, Umeasiegbu, and Omede, 2018). This resource gap

widens educational inequality and limits the effectiveness of bilingual education in Nigeria.

4. Negative Societal Attitudes and Stigma: Cultural perceptions of deafness as a disability rather than a

linguistic difference continue to pose serious challenges. Many families and communities view the use

of sign language as reinforcing disability, preferring speech training or lipreading (Adigun, 2020). This

stigma leads to late language exposure, which negatively impacts linguistic and cognitive development.

The lack of societal acceptance also discourages investment in sign language learning among teachers,

peers, and family members, further isolating deaf learners.

5. Inadequate Government Funding and Policy Implementation: Even where inclusive education

policies exist, insufficient funding hampers their execution. Specialized schools for the deaf often

operate with limited budgets, insufficient teaching staff, and outdated facilities. Government

commitment to disability-inclusive education remains weak, with most advocacy efforts led by non-

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governmental organizations such as the Nigerian National Association of the Deaf (NNAD). Without

adequate funding, policy reforms cannot translate into practical improvements in classrooms,

perpetuating poor educational outcomes for deaf learners.

Emerging Opportunities and Policy Windows

1. Global Disability Rights Frameworks: International conventions such as the UN Convention on the

Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) and the Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4), which

promotes inclusive and equitable quality education, provide strong policy leverage for Nigeria to

institutionalize bilingual sign language. These global commitments pressure national governments to

adopt inclusive practices, creating a window for legal recognition of Nigerian Sign Language (NSL) as

a language of instruction (United Nations, 2006).

2. Rising Deaf Advocacy Movements: Organizations such as the Nigerian National Association of the

Deaf (NNAD) and youth-led advocacy groups are increasingly vocal about the rights of deaf persons,

including access to bilingual education. Their campaigns have amplified awareness at community and

national levels, pushing policymakers to recognize the linguistic and cultural rights of the Deaf

community (Adigun, 2020). These advocacy efforts create a grassroots-driven opportunity for policy

reform and educational inclusion.

3. Growth of Digital Learning Platforms: The expansion of digital technology in Nigeria offers new

opportunities to develop sign language resources, from mobile applications to e-learning platforms.

Initiatives to create online sign language dictionaries, video tutorials, and bilingual teaching aids can

help bridge the resource gap in deaf education (Asonye, Umeasiegbu, and Omede, 2018). With

increasing smartphone penetration, technology can democratize access to bilingual education even in

rural and underserved communities.

4. Inclusion in Teacher Education Reforms: Nigeria’s ongoing reforms in teacher training institutions

provide a window to integrate bilingual pedagogy into pre-service and in-service training. Embedding

sign language competence in the Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) and other teacher preparation

programs would create a new generation of teachers equipped to deliver bilingual education effectively

(Omede and Bakare, 2014, Nwachukwu,Okoro, & Anyanwu,2021). This is a practical entry point for

embedding bilingual education into mainstream teacher training.

5. Policy Momentum toward Inclusive Education: The Nigerian government’s increased attention to

inclusive education policies offers a critical policy window. The National Policy on Education (2013),

though limited in its explicit recognition of sign language, provides a platform for advocacy to expand

its provisions. Furthermore, ongoing national conversations around disability rights, coupled with

regional initiatives such as the African Disability Protocol, present opportunities to strengthen legal and

curricular frameworks that institutionalize bilingual sign language

CONCLUSION

The imperatives of bilingual sign language in the language development and education of learners with hearing

impairment in Nigeria cannot be overstated, as it represents both a linguistic right and a developmental

necessity. By fostering cognitive growth, literacy advancement, social inclusion, and communicative

competence, bilingual sign language bridges the gap between deaf learners and their hearing peers, positioning

them for meaningful participation in national development. Yet, persistent challenges such as weak policy

frameworks, inadequate teacher training, resource scarcity, and societal stigma must be addressed if Nigeria is

to meet global standards of inclusive education. Encouragingly, emerging opportunities in international

disability rights, advocacy movements, digital learning, and teacher education reforms provide clear policy

windows that Nigeria can leverage. What remains is a deliberate commitment from government, academia, and

civil society to institutionalize bilingual sign language as a cornerstone of inclusive education, ensuring that no

learner is left behind.

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RECOMMENDATIONS

This work therefore recommends that:

1. The government should grant NSL formal status as a language of instruction in schools for the deaf,

aligning with global disability rights frameworks.

2. The Ministry of Education should integrate bilingual sign language pedagogy into teacher education

curricula and provide continuous professional development for educators in schools for the deaf.

3. Curriculum planners should develop and standardize bilingual teaching and learning materials in NSL

and English, including digital resources and indigenous sign language documentation.

4. Non-Governmental organizations should strengthen partnerships with organizations like the Nigerian

National Association of the Deaf (NNAD) to combat stigma and promote societal acceptance of

bilingual sign language as a tool for inclusion.

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