INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025  
The Role of Self-Efficacy and Business Simulation towards  
Entrepreneurial Traits Development  
Victor Nipis1*, Juhaini binti Jabar2, Murzidah binti Ahmad Murad3  
1Institut Kemahiran MARA Bintulu, 97000 Sarawak  
2,3Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka Hang Tuah Jaya, 76100 Durian Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia  
*Corresponding Author  
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000502  
Received: 20 October 2025; Accepted: 28 October 2025; Published: 17 November 2025  
ABSTRACT  
Although entrepreneurship has been prioritized in the Twelfth Malaysia Plan (RMK-12) and the National TVET  
Policy, current practices remain largely theoretical and offer limited opportunities for experiential learning. In  
addressing this gap, the study employs a Design and Development Research (DDR) approach which focusing  
on the module’s initial design phase. Grounded in experiential learning theory, the design process will  
incorporate needs analysis, literature review, and expert consultation to ensure contextual relevance and  
pedagogical consistency. The module also integrates interactive simulation-based activities aimed at  
strengthening entrepreneurial self-efficacy, decision-making, and business acumen. The first phase is known as  
module’s conceptualization and structure. Subsequently, the phases will involve systematic validation and  
evaluation. The study contributes to entrepreneurship education by presenting a replicable design framework  
and delivering a practical, student-centred simulation tool tailored for TVET institutions.  
Keywords: simulation-based, self-efficacy, TVET, entrepreneurship education  
INTRODUCTION  
Entrepreneurship education is vital driver of national progress, promoting innovation, strengthening economic  
stability, and improving graduate employability. In Malaysia, policy documents such as the Twelfth Malaysia  
Plan (RMK-12), the Thirteenth Malaysia Plan (RMK-13), the National TVET Policy, and the MARA Strategic  
Plan (2021–2025) emphasize the importance of equipping Technical and Vocational Education and Training  
(TVET) graduates with entrepreneurial skills. This is important to ensure graduates moving out from being job  
seekers to job creators (Economic Planning Unit (EPU), 2021; EPU, 2025; Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA),  
2021). Despite these aspirations, entrepreneurship education in MARA TVET institutions still applying  
conventional, lecture-based delivery methods. Such approaches often fail to nurture critical entrepreneurial traits  
such as creativity, resilience, initiative, and the willingness to take risks (The INS News, 2022). This limitation  
is concerning in light of Malaysia’s broader objective of preparing entrepreneurial workforce in alignment with  
industry 4.0 and national transformation agenda (Wan, 2025).  
This study will use three theoretical perspectives, which are, situated learning theory, experiential learning  
theory, and human capital theory. Situated learning theory highlights that knowledge acquisition is most  
effective when learners engage in authentic, real-life contexts. In parallel, experiential learning theory involves  
experimentation, reflection, and adaptation, where knowledge is constructed through direct experience and  
critical assessment of outcomes. This cycle of action and reflection, which is central to entrepreneurial practice,  
is well supported through simulation-based instruction (Silitonga et al., 2024). Additionally, human capital  
theory positions education and training as investments that enhance individuals’ productivity and economic  
contribution. By embedding structured entrepreneurship education into TVET, students’ technical expertise is  
complemented with entrepreneurial knowledge and business acumen, thus strengthening their overall human  
capital (Silitonga et al., 2024). In year 2023, entrepreneurship statistic had shown that 16.3% TVET students  
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from 407,000 registered students involved in various entrepreneurship activities (Business Today, 2024).  
Additionally, about 10% of Polytechnics and community colleges have established own business after  
completing studies (Sinar Daily, 2023). These figures had shown that the institutions were no longer limited  
preparing graduates for traditional employment but is increasingly fostering entrepreneurial mindsets and self-  
reliance.  
Self-efficacy, in other words, plays a critical role in the development of entrepreneurial traits. This is defined as  
confidence in one’s ability to successfully undertake entrepreneurial tasks. Recent studies had shown business  
simulation have the potential to enhance self-efficacy (Zulfiqar et al., 2021). Yet, in MARA TVET context,  
entrepreneurship modules are often neither structured nor adapted to students’ needs, and little empirical work  
has been done to examine the mediating role of self-efficacy in linking simulation-based learning to the  
development of entrepreneurial traits. A recent study by Rahim et al (2025) examined MARA students whose  
undertaken digital entrepreneurship subject and found that they exhibited weak levels of personal entrepreneurial  
competencies (PEC). The researchers argued that this was due to insufficiently structured and poorly aligned  
module with students’ learning needs. They argued more innovative and experiential strategies, such as  
collaboration with practicing entrepreneurs and business demonstration are essential to enhance entrepreneurial  
readiness.  
Thus, this research will develop a structured module of business simulation embedding real-world  
entrepreneurial decision-making and providing students with opportunities to practice problem-solving, risk  
assessment and business strategy in an interactive and engaging environment. Along the way to the design is the  
incorporation of mechanisms that can strengthen self-efficacy, positioning the module not only as a teaching  
tool but also as a means of shaping students’ confidence in their entrepreneurial abilities (Yang, et al, 2022).  
LITERATURE REVIEW  
Pedagogical Factors  
1.  
Simulation-based Instructional design  
Business simulation, grounded in Kolb’s (1984) Experiential Learning Theory, reframes entrepreneurship  
education by transforming students from passive recipients of knowledge into active decision-makers who learn  
through iterative cycles of experience, reflection, and conceptualization. While researchers such as Randall et  
al. (2025) and Levkovskyi et al. (2021) affirm its capacity to integrate experience, cognition, and behavior into  
a holistic learning model, others argue that simulations often prioritize engagement over genuine cognitive  
transformation. Existing studies highlight improvements in problem-solving, teamwork, and entrepreneurial  
mindsets (Akhtaruzzaman et al., 2024; Beranič & Heričko, 2022; Zulfiqar et al., 2021), yet many remain  
outcome-focused rather than process-oriented, offering limited insight into how entrepreneurial traits are  
internalized. Integrating self-efficacy into simulation learning presents a critical theoretical advancement, as it  
explains the psychological mechanisms through which experiential tasks translate into entrepreneurial behavior  
(Primario et al., 2024). Although emerging evidence supports the role of digital simulations in enhancing  
innovation and sustainable competitiveness (Chang et al., 2025), critics that without sufficient framework, such  
technologies risk reinforcing surface-level engagement (Petersen, 2023). Consequently, the synergistic  
interaction between business simulation, self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial trait development remains  
underexplored, particularly within Malaysia’s TVET institutions, where contextual variables such as  
technological access and pedagogical design differ significantly. Addressing this gap, the present study extends  
the discourse by examining how business simulation enhances self-efficacy and entrepreneurial traits among  
MARA TVET students, contributing both theoretically and contextually to the evolving field of entrepreneurship  
education.  
2.  
Entrepreneurial Assessment Performance  
Assessment in entrepreneurship education differs from traditional academic evaluation, which often prioritizes  
knowledge recall over applied competence. While conventional written tests fail to capture dynamic skills such  
as creativity, resilience, and opportunity recognition, authentic assessments, including simulations and business  
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pitches, better reflect the iterative and uncertain nature of entrepreneurial practice (Secundo et al., 2021;  
Primario, Rippa, & Secundo, 2024). Yet, researchers differ in their emphasis: some argue that these approaches  
enhance practical decision-making and teamwork (Levkovskyi et al., 2021), whereas others indicate that they  
overlook psychological dimensions such as motivation and confidence (Petersen, 2023). Evidence increasingly  
shows that assessment performance correlates with entrepreneurial self-efficacy, which shapes students’ belief  
in their capacity to act entrepreneurially (McGee et al., 2009; Randall et al., 2025). Therefore, integrating self-  
efficacy indicators into assessment design provides a more balanced and explanatory measure of entrepreneurial  
learning, linking visible behavior with the underlying psychological readiness essential for real-world  
entrepreneurship.  
Technological Factors  
1. Technological Integration  
Technology is no longer a peripheral support tool but a transformative driver of entrepreneurship education,  
reshaping how knowledge is created, shared, and applied. While Davis’s (1989) Technology Acceptance Model  
highlights perceived ease of use and usefulness as key determinants of digital adoption, recent studies argue that  
these constructs alone are insufficient to explain the dynamic learning demands of entrepreneurship (Randall et  
al., 2025; Akhtaruzzaman et al., 2024). Contemporary simulation-based approaches, for instance, extend beyond  
usability by emphasizing experiential immersion and behavioral transformation, elements often overlooked in  
early technology models. Furthermore, while proponents such as Levkovskyi et al. (2021) and Primario, Rippa,  
and Secundo (2024) assert that technology fosters creativity, collaboration, and entrepreneurial self-efficacy,  
critics caution that technological sophistication does not guarantee pedagogical effectiveness. Petersen (2023)  
contends that without intentional instructional design, digital tools risk becoming superficial add-ons rather than  
catalysts for deeper entrepreneurial learning. This underscores the need for digital readiness and pedagogical  
alignment, particularly within MARA’s TVET ecosystem, where disparities in technological access and educator  
preparedness remain persistent (Beranič & Heričko, 2022).  
Human Factors  
1. Student Engagement  
Traditional classroom participation often promotes surface-level engagement, business simulations provide  
deeper experiential involvement by exposing students to real-world entrepreneurial challenges (Levkovskyi et  
al., 2021). Researchers argue that such immersive engagement enhances opportunity recognition and venture  
creation (Zhao et al., 2021; Petersen, 2023), while others indicate that sustained engagement also cultivates  
resilience, adaptability, and entrepreneurial intention, core attributes of entrepreneurial success (Akhtaruzzaman  
et al., 2024; Chang et al., 2025). Hence, engagement within simulation-based learning represents not merely  
participation but an active transformation of knowledge into entrepreneurial behavior.  
2. Facilitative Teaching Practices  
Researchers argue that this approach enables deeper cognitive processing, as educators act as mentors who  
scaffold learning through structured reflection, feedback, and strategic decision-making (Petersen, 2023). In  
contrast, directive teaching often limits students’ autonomy and risk-taking, the skills essential for  
entrepreneurial success. Effective facilitative teaching thus requires educators to design meaningful, context-  
driven activities that foster reflective dialogue, entrepreneurial resilience, and a growth-oriented mindset,  
equipping learners to navigate uncertainty and innovation with confidence (Akhtaruzzaman et al., 2024; Chang  
et al., 2025).  
3. Institutional Supports  
Access to resources and mentorship remains a decisive factor in entrepreneurial traits development, as  
emphasized by the resource-based view (Barney, 1991). While traditional universities often benefit from  
established networks, funding channels, and structured entrepreneurial ecosystems, TVET institutions frequently  
operate with limited access to such support, constraining students’ opportunities for venture creation and  
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innovation. Prior studies show that entrepreneurial traits such as resilience, opportunity recognition, and  
proactiveness develop effectively within environments that provide robust institutional support and mentorship  
structures (Fayolle & Gailly, 2015; Walter & Block, 2016; Halim et al., 2021). However, in TVET contexts  
where technical training dominates, these supports must be contextualized through mentorship schemes, startup  
incubation, and community-based entrepreneurial projects to translate technical competence into entrepreneurial  
capability (Aziz et al., 2020; Wan, 2025). This contrast highlights a persistent gap between resource-rich  
academic settings and resource-constrained vocational systems, underscoring the need for more strategic  
institutional interventions to strengthen entrepreneurial traits among TVET learners.  
Self-Efficacy  
Self-efficacy serves as a core psychological mechanism linking entrepreneurial intention, perseverance, and  
performance. Rooted in Bandura’s (1997) social cognitive theory, it reflects one’s belief in their ability to execute  
entrepreneurial tasks effectively. While early research viewed self-efficacy primarily as a motivational factor,  
recent studies position it as a predictive determinant of entrepreneurial behavior, mediating the relationship  
between learning experiences and venture outcomes (Ahmad & Fazal, 2022; Lee & Kim, 2024). Researchers  
argue that individuals with higher entrepreneurial self-efficacy demonstrate greater confidence in managing  
uncertainty and business complexity, leading to higher persistence and venture success. Conversely, weak self-  
efficacy often results in avoidance of entrepreneurial risk and reduced innovation. This contrast underscores the  
construct’s centrality not only as an outcome of experiential learning but also as a driving force behind  
entrepreneurial resilience and behavioral intention.  
Entrepreneurial Traits  
Entrepreneurial traits refer to personal dispositions such as creativity, innovativeness, risk-taking, and  
proactiveness, which collectively shape entrepreneurial behavior and intention. Earlier research viewed these  
traits as innate or static characteristics, suggesting that entrepreneurship is limited to individuals with natural  
tendencies. However, contemporary researchers argue that such traits can be cultivated and enhanced through  
structured education and experiential learning that simulate real-world business challenges (Halim, Rahman, &  
Nasir, 2021; Tan & Lim, 2023). This shift reflects a growing recognition that entrepreneurial potential is learned  
rather than born. Moreover, emerging evidence indicates that risk-taking behavior, when combined with  
entrepreneurial knowledge and mindset, not only elevates entrepreneurial intention but also strengthens self-  
efficacy as a mediating force between traits and behavior (Caputo, Nguyen, & Delladio, 2024). This underscores  
a dynamic interaction where experiential learning environments, such as business simulations, reinforce the  
confidence and adaptability necessary for sustained entrepreneurial development.  
Conceptual Framework  
Conceptual Model  
Figure 1: Conceptual Model  
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The independent variables in this study provide the foundation for the design of the business simulation module.  
In the module, these elements are embedded through experiential cycles that guide students across concrete  
entrepreneurial tasks. By integrating these processes, the module enables students not only to acquire  
entrepreneurship concepts but also to practice decision-making in realistic scenarios, transforming abstract  
knowledge into applied competencies. The conceptual model will apply experiential learning theory (Kolb,  
1984), situated learning theory (Lave & Wenger, 1991), and human capital theory (Becker, 1993)  
Hypothesis  
1. Direct Effect  
H1: Simulation-based instructional design has a positive effect on entrepreneurial traits development.  
H2: Entrepreneurial assessment performance has a positive effect on entrepreneurial traits development.  
H3: Technology integration has a positive effect on entrepreneurial traits development.  
H4: Student engagement has a positive effect on entrepreneurial traits development.  
H5: Facilitative teaching practices have a positive effect on entrepreneurial traits.  
H6: Institutional supports have a positive effect on entrepreneurial traits development.  
2. Mediating Effects of Self-Efficacy  
Self-efficacy may contribute to entrepreneurial traits development. Students with higher self-efficacy are more  
likely to persist in entrepreneurial tasks, embrace challenges, and translate learning into entrepreneurial action  
(Newman et al., 2023). Therefore, self-efficacy is expected to mediate relationship between the independent  
variables and entrepreneurial traits development.  
H7a: Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between simulation-based instructional design and  
entrepreneurial traits development.  
H7b: Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between entrepreneurial assessment performance and  
entrepreneurial traits development.  
H7c: Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between technology integration and entrepreneurial traits  
development.  
H7d: Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between student engagement and entrepreneurial traits  
development.  
H7e: Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between facilitative teaching practices and entrepreneurial traits  
development.  
H7f: Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between institutional support and entrepreneurial traits  
development.  
3. Overall Mediation Effect  
While each independent variable contributes to entrepreneurial traits development directly, it is proposed that  
their collective influence is significantly enhanced through self-efficacy. In other words, the module’s design,  
assessments, technology, engagement, pedagogy, and institutional support are most effective when they also  
strengthen students’ confidence in their entrepreneurial abilities.  
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H8: Self-efficacy mediates the overall relationship between the independent variables and entrepreneurial traits  
development among MARA TVET students.  
Future Direction  
As this study is conceptual in nature, future research should focus on empirical validation of the proposed  
business simulation module. Quasi-experimental studies are needed to examine the extent to which simulation-  
based influences entrepreneurial self-efficacy and traits over time (Chang et al., 2025; Lee & Kim, 2024). Such  
investigations would provide evidence of the sustainability of outcomes suggested by this conceptual framework.  
Furthermore, future empirical research should investigate the role of peer collaboration, social networks, and  
cross-disciplinary learning in strengthening entrepreneurial mindset development within simulation activities  
(Chang et al., 2025; Randall et al., 2025). Additionally, studies focusing on instructor competencies, facilitator  
training, and institutional support structures would help to determine how educational ecosystems shape the  
scalability and transferability of business simulation modules (Maneerattanasak & Shotlersak, 2023; Primario,  
Rippa, & Secundo, 2024).  
Finally, exploring the impact of cultural, socioeconomic, and institutional variations on simulation-based  
entrepreneurship education could provide valuable insights into best practices for diverse student populations  
(Wan, 2025; Akhtaruzzaman et al., 2024).  
CONCLUSION  
This study highlights the importance of business simulation as a pedagogical tool to enhance entrepreneurial  
traits among MARA TVET students (Bellotti et al., 2023; Hung & Huang, 2022). Grounded in experiential  
learning, situated learning, and human capital theories, and incorporating self-efficacy as a mediating factor, the  
research emphasizes the combined influence of pedagogical design, technology integration, and human support  
on entrepreneurial development (Ahmad & Fazal, 2022; Newman et al., 2022).  
By providing students with authentic, risk-free environments to practice decision-making, problem-solving, and  
strategic thinking, business simulation module fosters critical entrepreneurial traits such as creativity,  
proactiveness, risk-taking, and perseverance (Halim, Rahman & Nasir, 2021; Tan & Lim, 2023). The anticipated  
findings contribute theoretically by extending understanding of how self-efficacy mediates experiential learning  
in entrepreneurship education (Lee & Kim, 2024; Newman et al., 2022). Practically, validated module offers a  
structured, scalable, and contextually relevant tool for TVET students’ readiness for entrepreneurial ventures  
(Almahry et al., 2022; Sabuncu & Karacay, 2023).  
Ultimately, this research aligns with Malaysia’s national agenda to cultivate innovative, adaptable, and  
entrepreneurial graduates capable of thriving in uncertain business landscapes (Economic Planning Unit, 2025;  
Majlis Amanah Rakyat, 2021). The study sets a foundation for future educational innovations, policy  
formulation, and the broader adoption of simulation-based learning to bridge the gap between theory and practice  
in entrepreneurship education (Randall et al., 2025; Chang et al., 2025).  
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS  
First and foremost, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Associate Professor Dr. Juhaini binti Jabar  
and Dr. Murzidah binti Ahmad Murad, my main supervisor and co-supervisor, for the invaluable guidance,  
support, patience, expertise and encouragement throughout this research journey. Special thanks go to my  
parents, family, colleagues and peers for the encouragement, constructive feedback, and motivation throughout  
the research process.  
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