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Reconfiguration Reindustrialisation as a Panacea of Bulawayo’s
Manufacturing Sector for Sustainable Economic Growth
Lawrence Dumisani Nyathi and Peter Nkala
Banking & Economic Sciences Department, National University of Science and Technology, Bulawayo,
Bulawayo Metropolitan Province, Zimbabwe
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000520
Received: 20 October 2025; Accepted: 26 October 2025; Published: 18 November 2025
ABSTRACT
Industrialisation plays a key role in the social and economic development of countries worldwide, especially
developing countries such as Zimbabwe. However, due to stiff competition from advanced economies with
better organised policies and state of the art technologies, developing countries have seen a slow-down of
industrialisation. Zimbabwe’s economic slow-down in the last 30 years has been characterised by a general
decline of industrial economic activities. Massive de-industrialisation and relocation of companies to Harare
have affected industrial performance in Bulawayo, the second largest city, once the industrial hub of the
country. This economic slowdown, high unemployment and poverty levels put re-industrialisation of
Bulawayo on the spotlight. Data for this research was collected through a validated questionnaire administered
to respondents of 145 companies in Belmont, Donnington and Kelvin industrial areas. Concerns and
viewpoints on strategies for reindustrialization and revival of the Bulawayo Metropolitan Province
industrialisation were shared by respondents. Results and discussion show that lack of concessionary funding,
development of provincial value chains, redressing infrastructural renewal, revival and recapitalisation of the
National Railways of Zimbabwe, resuscitating capital equipment rebates, operationalising the devolution and
decentralisation policies as well creating viable industrial parks and special economic zones, clearing of
external debts and formalising the economy emerge are key tenets of reindustrialisation strategies. The
realignment of the reindustrialisation strategies with government national industrialisation development
policies is necessary for the realisation of benefits of the 4
th
Industrial Revolution and also to remain regionally
and internationally competitive. Zimbabwe’s vision of an upper-middle society by 2030 should be anchored on
retooling and reindustrialisation as a panacea for industrial development, employment creation and economic
growth.
Keywords: Bulawayo, Economic growth, Industrialisation sector, Reindustrialisation, Reconfiguration,
Panacea, Zimbabwe.
EL Classification: H32; F43; M21
INTRODUCTION
Zimbabwe at independence in 1980 inherited a relatively developed and diversified manufacturing sector by
Sub-Saharan African standards, producing many different products (ZEPARU, 2014). The major
manufacturers of consumable goods were located in Harare and Bulawayo, each accounting for close to 50%
and 25% of manufactured output, respectively (Kanondo et al, 2011). The manufacturing sector consisted of
some 1 260 firms, producing 7 000 different products. The industry was configured for backward and forward
linkages, with mining and agriculture topping the charts as critical sectors (Ndlela & Robinson1995). The
spill-over effect of the manufacturing sector positioned industry as an important driver of economic growth.
The financial crisis of 2008 left many economies regearing and encouraging industrial growth as most
governments in developing countries started reconsidering and reviewing industrial policies and mooting
retooling and reindustrialization (Penava et al., 2016). Rowthorn & Coutts (2013) defines reindustrialisation as
increasing the share of industrialisation industry in value-added production or employment.
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Bulawayo Province has been a hub of industrial activity during the pre and post-independence eras boasting of
massive production of clothing and textiles, construction materials, household goods, leather products,
agricultural equipment, food and beverages as well as travel and leisure products (Provincial Industrial
Development Strategy, 2020). At its peak in the 1970s, the City of Bulawayo, Zimbabwe’s second city was
called the Manchester of Rhodesia or the Gauteng of Rhodesia, home to vibrant food and beverages,
engineering and industrialisation, textile and consumer goods as well as automotive sectors (Africa Report,
2023). Some notable industries in these various sectors and their manufacturing focus are as listed in Table 1.
The NRZ established in 1893 and headquartered in Bulawayo to serve mines and farms, provide a transport
link to sea ports and contribute to economic development, is the oldest company listed on Table 1.
Table 1: List of historical and current Manufacturing Firms in Bulawayo
#
Sector(s)
Major or Key Firms in
the industry
Year
Est.
1
Food &
Beverages
Cold Storage
Commission
1938
National Foods
1920
Chibuku Breweries
1961
Delta Beverages
1898
United Refineries
1935
Schweppes
1930
2
Engineering &
Industrialisation
Cold Storage
Commission
1938
Electricity Supply
Commission
1936
Nimr and Chapman
1931
Early Foundry and
Engineering Firms
1894-
1896
Eagletron International
(Pump & Steel Supplies)
2003
National Railways of
Zimbabwe
1893
ZECO Engineering
1948
3
Textiles and
Consumer goods
Merlin
1954
National Blankets
1939
Government Printers
1947
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4
Automotive
More Wear industries
(vehicle assembly)
1947
Dunlop (Tyre production)
1957
Source: Compiled by authors from various sources
Bulawayo was part of Matebeleland North Province then and her industries contributed significantly to
country’s gross domestic product (GDP), employment and foreign currency generation through value-added
export commodities. The contribution to GDP by industries in Bulawayo in 2021 was estimated at 13.6%,
second to Harare. The export destinations for commodities from these industries included the Southern Africa
Development Community (SADC) region, particularly South Africa and also the United States of America,
Germany, China and the United Kingdom among others.
At the peak of industrialisation in the 1970s, Bulawayo was nicknamed “Kontuthu Ziyathunqa” or the “City of
smoky fires” in recognition of industrial activity producing smoke everywhere across the bustling city. The tide
turned in the 1990s and 2000s which were decades of deindustrialisation of the economy of Matebeleland and
City of Bulawayo as the deceleration effects of industrialisation that escalated during the economic structural
adjustment programme from 1991-1995. Mbira (2015) mentioned that the decade long economic crisis in
Zimbabwe, stretching from 2000 to 2009, saw the lowest shrink of the economy during which industries
closed, services sector firms shut down or downsized amid a variety of economic viability challenges, as the
agricultural sector also operated below sustainable capacity levels. Research by the Ministry of industry and
commerce in 2022 showed that, in 2009 alone, 87 Bulawayo companies shut down (Ministry of Industry and
Commerce, 2022). The challenges were characterised by high costs of production, foreign currency shortages,
high utility costs, limited funding for retooling, abrupt industry shutdowns and dwindling foreign direct
investments among others. The pressure from harsh economic working conditions, a lack of working capital
and competition from cheap imports fuelled the collapsed of industries in the City of Bulawayo (ZNCC, 2021).
Irrespective of economic challenges faced by the country, Bulawayo can regain its once revered industrial
status, rebuild its huge exports potential of steel wire, maize and flour, safari shoes, belts, sandals, footwear,
conveyor rolls, high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipes, bulk bags, door frames and processed foods like
biscuits, cooking oil, sweets and canned meat. The government of Zimbabwe developed a number of “eases of
doing business” policies which firms across the country could exploit for both growth and survival. Attempts
by government at assisting companies retool have successfully led to the revival of some companies
experiencing double or treble production levels (National Budget, 2022). Government has since 2017 openly
declared the desire for Bulawayo regain its industrial hub status and many companies were assisted to retool
and build solid domestic industrial bases which are critical building blocks towards the attainment an upper
middle income society by 2030 (MoFEDIP , 2023). However, such good intentions by government and their
outcomes are a drop in the ocean considering the number of firms that have shut down and others in distress.
Statement of the problem
Since 1997 the Zimbabwean economy has been on a free-fall with real Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
plummeting by over 40% from 1997 to 2006 (Techfin Research, 2007), while inflation soared from around
20% in December 1997 to a record peak of 7 635% in July 2007 (Central Statistical Office, 2007). The
economy completely collapsed and it was perpetuated by the severe decline of the manufacturing sector as
well as the total collapse of the vibrant agriculture sector (Confederation of Zimbabwe industries, 2006 cited
from Nyathi, 2021). Dollarisation of the economy in 2009 ushered a new era when the government
implemented a recovery policies that stabilised manufacturing decline. However it has been posting
suboptimal performance. This paper seeks to address the massive decline of Bulawayo's manufacturing sector
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caused by stiff competition from advanced economies, leading to massive de-industrialization, high
unemployment and escalating poverty levels in a city that was once the industrial hub of the country.
Research Objectives
The paper sought to:
i. identify strategies for re-industrialization of the industrialisation sector,
ii. assess the role of industrialisation in economic development,
iii. determine the needs for manufacturing sector revival and
iv. Assess the alignment of government policies with the 4th industrial revolution strategies for
competitiveness purposes.
THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL LITERATURE REVIEWED
The theory of coordination failure says markets may fail to coordinate complementary activities and when
complementarities exist, returns of one investment depend on the presence or extent of other investments as
two existing scenarios (Hoff and Stiglitz, 2000). Optimally, all investors are better off with investments
achieved simultaneously and it is ridiculous for investors to imitate expectations as actions of business
competitors leading to failure in coordinating investors’ actions. Ultimately, coordination failure drives the
market towards an inferior equilibrium instead of towards a potential situation where resources would be
optimally allocated resulting in all agents better off. This theory posits that when decision making exhibits
traits of coordination failure an underdevelopment equilibrium is always possible.
Early coordination failure economists emphasized the role of the government in solving the problem. In order
to reach an optimal level of coordination, a public-led “big push” investment programme with
complementarities in the rest of the economy is recommended. The United Nations Development Programme
recommended the “big push” strategy as necessary for developing countries to overcome the poverty trap,
through pushing basic investments in areas of public administration, human capital and key infrastructure
development (United Nations Development Programme, 2005).
Research usually puts government at the centre of a successful avoidance of coordination failure. Only
government is capable of creating effective and attractive strategies that incentivise industrial growth through
calculated financial and other fiscal injections and deliberate industrial development policies. Pursuit of bad
and retrogressive polices deters investment and industrial growth and unprecedented collapse of many
industries. Consequently, bad policy implementation pushes economies into worse disequilibrium out of which
will always be very difficult to emerge unscathed. Post-independence the government of Zimbabwe has been
making bad policy pronunciation leading to a coordinated failure of the manufacturing sector.
The Role of the Manufacturing sector in Economic Development
Industrialisation plays a key role in developing countries economic development. The importance of
industrialisation has however diminished over the last 20–25 years, causing premature de-industrialization or
non-industrialization in developing countries (Haruchi, Cheng & Smeets, 2017). The colossal decay of the
economies is usually accompanied by low capacity utilisation and can only slump amid industry and firm
closures. The slowdown of economic growth in Bulawayo, characterised by high unemployment and poverty
levels brought the issue of re-industrialisation back into the spotlight. Government through its National
Development Strategy 1 and Zimbabwe National Industrial Policy promised to reindustrialise Bulawayo.
Literature supports revival of manufacturing sectors it is the backbone of strong economies as Moyo & Jeke
(2019) posit that the manufacturing sector poses a potential solution to reinvigorate the economy and
livelihoods in Zimbabwe.
Studies on Reindustrialisation : The Role of Manufacturing
Attiah (2019) examined the role of industrialisation and service sectors in economic development in the period
1950-2015 in 50 countries comprising 10 advanced & 40 developing economies. The research results were in
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line with the industrialisation engine of growth hypothesis with the share of industrialisation of GDP positively
related to economic growth and the effect more pronounced for the poorer countries although no such effects
were found for services. The analysis of the role of industrialisation and service sectors in periods of growth
acceleration showed that the effects of industrialisation are particularly pronounced in periods of growth
acceleration. The conclusion was that industrialisation is especially important in periods of accelerated growth
while services play a lesser important role in growth accelerations than industrialisation.
Gumbe & Chaneta (2014) argued that the manufacturing sector in Zimbabwe plays a critical role in the
economic development through contributions to employment creation, GDP, savings and foreign exchange
generation. The Government of Zimbabwe (GoZ) crafted a number of programmes aimed at economic
rejuvenation since emergence of the industrial decline in the late 1980s. The policies and programmes include
the economic Structural Adjustment Programme (ESAP, 1991-1995), the Zimbabwe Programme for Economic
and Social Transformation (ZIMPREST, 1998-2000), the Millennium Economic Recovery Programme
(MERP), the Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-Economic Transformation (ZIMASSET, 2013-2018),
the Zimbabwe Industrial Development Policy (2012-2016), the Zimbabwe Industrial Reconstruction and
Growth Plan (ZIRGP, 2024-2025) and the National Development Strategy 1 (NDS1). Despite these
programmes dating back almost 40 years, their impact on industrialisation has been rather elusive or minimal.
Haraguchi et al., (2016) showed that although industrialisation plays a key role in the economic development,
the importance of industrialisation has diminished resulting in premature deindustrialization or non-
industrialization in developing countries. This research explores whether the low levels of industrialization in
developing countries are attributable to long-term changes in opportunities available to the sector around the
globe. Ogbodo (2018) examined the impact of manufacturing sector development on economic growth in
Nigeria for the period 1981 to 2017 using ordinary least square (OLS) estimation technique. The research
sought to determine the impact of manufacturing sector development on economic growth and also to ascertain
the direction of causality between the manufacturing sector and economic growth in Nigeria. The error
correction model (ECM) results showed that manufacturing sector output had no significant impact on
economic growth in Nigeria, t-statistic and probability values were 1.19 and 0.24, respectively. The result
further revealed that interest rate and gross fixed capital formation exhibited a statistically insignificant impact
on economic growth over the period. The research recommended government implementation of appropriate
reform policies that would ensure efficiency in Nigeria’s industrialisation sector.
Moyo & Jeke (2019) postulate that the manufacturing sector plays an important role in the economy although
Africa has experienced significant deindustrialisation over the last few decades, economic growth has been on
an upward trend over this period. The high growth rates have mostly been propelled by improved
macroeconomic stability and the commodity price boom. The slowdown in commodity prices has recently
caused a deceleration of economic growth begging the question whether promoting the manufacturing sector
generally results in higher and sustainable economic growth and reduction of unemployment? This research
assessed the impact of the manufacturing sector on economic growth in 37 African countries employing the
System-GMM Model for the period 1990 and 2017. The results showed that industrialisation value had a
positive effect on economic growth in African countries and recommended the enactment of measures
targeting boosting industrialisation output.
Sallam (2021) examined the role of the manufacturing sector in stimulating economic growth in the Saudi
economy employing annual time-series data spanning 1980–2018. The databases of the Saudi Arabian
Monetary Authority using the cointegration and Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) approaches to
examine the short and long-run relationship causality between variables were used. The VECM is a statistical
model used in econometrics to analyse relationships between non-stationary but cointegrated time series
variables. The results showed a two-way causal relationship existing between the manufacturing sector and
economic growth. Furthermore, the results indicated a unidirectional causal relationship between the
industrialisation and the services sectors.
Szirmai (2011) found that the importance of the manufacturing sector lies in accelerating growth and achieving
catch-up in developing countries predominated by market service sectors which are a potential source of
growth. Su and Yao (2016) exploited a large dataset covering internationally comparable sectoral information
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for middle-income economies and they proved that the manufacturing sector was imbued with three important
characteristics. First, for middle-income economies, industrialisation pulls along services, such that a decline
in the manufacturing sector growth rate will negatively affect the services sector growth rate, in both the short-
run and long-run meanings. Second, industrialisation development not only promotes the incentives of savings,
but also accelerate the pace of technological accumulation. Third, an increased share of the manufacturing
sector in middle-income economies can enhance the utilization of human capital and economic institutions.
They concluded that the manufacturing sectors are still the key engine of economic growth for middle-income
economies.
METHODOLOGY
This research adopts Nyathi et al., (2024) who applied a qualitative research approach aligned with the
interpretivism philosophy. Saunders et al., (2016) affirmed that such typical methods are for information
gathering technique that led to generation of non-numeric data. The number of manufacturing sector factories
in Bulawayo registered in terms of the Factories and Work Act [Chapter 14:08] with at least 10 employees
were the targeted population and these numbered 184 across various sectors. The focus was on the analysis of
interactions and contributions of the broad economic sector output growth and employment creation in
Bulawayo. With 184 as the targeted population and assuming a small margin of error of 5%, a sample size that
is representative at the 95% confidence interval would be 121. Thus, the research sampled 121 manufacturing
sector firms for this particular exercise. The research adopted the census sampling method rather than
considering the whole entire population under the research (Moholwa, 2017). Sixty-eight companies across all
these sectors were sampled as shown in the Table 2. Chinjova (2019) conducted qualitative research that
generated volumes of data on concerns and viewpoints on the elusive quest for reindustrialisation of
Bulawayo’s manufacturing sector towards sustainable economic growth. In this research, questionnaires were
also used to collect primary data in a standardised way since much of the information sought needed
considered response and references to records. Interviews were conducted on 120 company representatives
using a questionnaire to collect comprehensive data that enabled an in-depth analysis of a problem.
Table 2: Number of Companies in Key Economic Sectors
Sector
Population
Sample size
Sample/ population (%)
Beef to Leather sector
20
10
50
Iron, Engineering & Steel
40
32
80
Pharmaceutical
6
3
50
Food & Beverages
25
16
64
Plastic, Packaging & Rubber
18
11
61
Chemicals & chemical products
24
14
58
Textile & Clothing
18
13
72
Wood technology
15
9
60
Paper, printing & publishing
8
7
88
Car assembly & repairs
10
6
60
Total
184
121
Source: Ministry of Industry and Commerce, 2025
Business owners, managers and industry representatives from organisations and companies such as
Confederation of Zimbabwe Retailers, Probaz, Confederation of Zimbabwe Industries, Zimbabwe National
Chamber of Commerce, Zimbabwe Investment Development Agency, Zimtrade and Ministry of industry and
Commerce among others were targeted. A convenience sampling technique was utilized to select the business
owners or managers of companies in all sectors in Bulawayo Metropolitan Province. Primary data was
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collected using 140 validated questionnaires since much of the information sought needed a considered
response and reference to records and collected in a standardized way. The thematic approach was applied to
establish themes, analyse and interpret the data to track each set objective of the research.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Findings show that manufacturing sector still is the largest driver of economic growth in the country. The
Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (ZIMSTATS) economic census 2025 revealed that Bulawayo Province
has the most compliant manufacturers at 29%, which makes revival of Bulawayo industrial hub necessary.
These findings also show that the industrialisation sector’s value added and employment contribution to GDP
and employment, respectively, have not changed significantly since 1970. Bulawayo now has only one
manufacturer of formal trousers and one suit manufacturer while there are two modestly sized companies
which are industrialisation ladies’ wear. Zimbabweans now rely on imports for the majority of their clothing
from shorts, shoes and denim wear.
Respondents’ Characteristics
Respondents comprised senior managers, mostly managing directors and finance managers in charge of
various aspect of the sampled manufacturing sector firms. Figure 1 shows that twenty-one percent (21%) of the
respondents had been senior managers for a period of five (5) or less years whereas forty-one (41%) indicated
that they had been present in senior administration position for between five (5) and 10 years. Thirty-eight
percent of the respondents had been senior managers for more than 10 years. This implies that the bulk of
respondents were knowledgeable and seasoned senior administrators whose responses can be considered
reliable and authoritative.
Figure 1: Number of years of job experience
Strategies to revive the industry of Bulawayo
The revitalization of Bulawayo Province's manufacturing sector remains a persistent challenge. For years,
industrialists have cited a core group of unresolved issues to regulatory bodies and government institutions as
essential for stimulating growth. Figure 2 below reveals these expert-identified prerequisites, which are
considered fundamental for the sector's recovery.
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
No of respondents
Areas needing attention
Figure 2: Strategies to Reindustrialise the Industrial Sector in Bulawayo
Concessionary Funding
Concessionary funding is favourable financial assistance that governments, international organizations, or
development banks provide to support developing countries, typically with low or no interest, extended grace
periods and flexible repayment terms. Respondents reiterated that government and the financial sector should
provide concessionary funding to deserving industries in Bulawayo. Moreso, such funding if allocated from
the fiscus and external credit lines like the International Monetary Fund Special Drawing Rights should be
made available at low interest rates and long repayment tenures to allow industries to generate production
without daunting repayment burdens. The government put aside USD22.5 million from the Special Drawing
Rights to support distressed companies in the industrialisation sector. The SDRs are an international reserve
asset created by the IMF to supplement member countries' official reserves. Sixty-eight percent of the
respondents amongst senior managers expressed concern that there seemed to be no serious commitment to
revival without concessionary government financial support at affordable interest rates that would enhance
competitiveness on the provincial, domestic and the international market. Chinjova (2019) also reveals that
revival of Bulawayo industries is anchored on availability of funding.
Development of the Pharmaceutical Provincial Value Chains
Zimbabwe is aiming for sustained growth to achieve Vision 2030 through resuscitating and strengthening
existing value chains as well as developing new value chains targeting mineral beneficiation (National
Development Strategy 1, 2020). The Bulawayo metropolitan province’s economy is driven by pharmaceutical,
beef to leather, textile to clothing, mineral based value chains and automotives among others. The
pharmaceutical firms still operating in Bulawayo today include Zimbabwe Pharmaceuticals (Pvt) Ltd, Datlabs
(Pvt) Ltd, Winters Pharmaceuticals, Pharmaceutical Distributors, Greenwood Wholesalers & Pharmaceuticals,
Hawthorne Medical Supplies and Choice Pharmacy, MediHealth Pharmacy, Varichem Pharmaceuticals and
CAPS Pharmaceuticals among many others. The pharmaceutical manufacturing sector in Bulawayo was built
on a strong industrial foundation inherited at independence and should therefore be prioritised for resuscitating
and strengthening existing industries in the province apart from developing new ones. Sixty seven percent of
respondents revealed that a complete re-evaluation of the value chains should appropriately reposition
Bulawayo industries to increase production and productivity across all sectors, employing import substitution
strategies to domesticate key value chains thereby ultimately propelling export led growth in the medium to
long term.
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Developing the Pharmaceutical Value Chain
Figure 3: The Pharmaceutical Value Chain in Zimbabwe (Source: Bulawayo Provincial Industrial
Development Strategy, 2024)
The pharmaceutical industry has been prioritised under Zimbabwe's industrial recovery strategy because of its
strategic importance to national health security and high potential for economic growth. The approximately
US$400 million (MCAZ, 2025) local pharmaceutical market experienced tremendous growth, with locally
produced medicines rising from 15% to 36% in 2025 increasing capacity utilisation from 12% to 51% in 2024
(Herald, 2025). The number of pharmaceutical manufacturers increased by 56%. With key pharmaceutical
companies and distributors such as Datlabs (Pvt) Ltd, Zimbabwe Pharmaceuticals (PVT) Ltd, MediHealth
Pharmacy, Winters Pharmaceuticals and Pharmaceutical and Chemical Distributors (PCD), a leading national
distributor with presence in Bulawayo, production and marketing infrastructure support in Bulawayo for the
pharmaceutical value chain and low-hanging fruit cannot be doubted. Despite being affected by the sector's
growth and challenges, like economic volatility and reliance on imports that negatively impact negatively
employment, the sector employed 380 workers in 2024 (CZI, 2024). The key aspects of pharmaceutical sector
employment include limited local industrialization affecting local drug manufactures output and a suppressed
growth potential. Hence the government initiatives such as the 2021-2025 pharmaceutical industrialization
strategy aimed at boosting local production, potentially influencing employment levels in the country.
Developing the Agro-based Value Chains
The agro-based value chains play a significant role in Bulawayo's provincial economy, contributing to
economic growth, employment and food security. The agro-based value chains can be developed to enhance
market linkages, promote local sourcing and connect farmers to markets. Initiatives such as the Market
Aggregation Linking markets and Innovation (MALII) project by the Bulawayo Vendors and Traders
Association (BVTA) was set up to improve access to markets for smallholder farmers are commendable. The
government regulations requiring millers, stockfeed producers and processors to prioritize locally sourced raw
materials to boost food sovereignty and industrial self-reliance are commendable initiatives. Particular
attention should be paid to value chain efficiency, analysis and development where organisation such as the
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United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO) use the concept of value chain analysis to
enhance understanding of the value chain structure and functioning as well as identify project interventions for
agro-industrial development. A thriving urban agriculture industry in Bulawayo challenges Councillors to
review the urban farming policy towards transforming agriculture into a resilient, inclusive and sustainable
food system (Sithole et al., 2012). Leveraging policy and partnerships require government support and
regulations pushing for localisation of value chains and food self-sufficiency through regulations such as
statutory instrument 87 of 2025. Collaboration with multi-stakeholders is necessary as transforming urban
agriculture requires integrated support from the public, private sector and agro-innovation experts and non-
governmental organisations (NGOs).
Developing Beef/Milk/Leather Value Chains
The United Nations Industrial Development Organization argues that leather is a widely traded commodity
within the growing world trade, currently estimated at more than US$100 billion a year. However, despite
owning a fifth of the global livestock population, African countries, account for only 4% and 3.3% of world
leather production and value addition, respectively. The Bulawayo leather industry is a significant global
manufacturing sector dominated by the Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs), which produce raw, processed
and intermediate leather materials for the production of footwear, handbags, belts, furniture, automotive
seating, soft gloves and contemporary clothing, among others. The leather and leather products have
traditionally been gateways to export diversification and export-oriented industrialization for most developing
countries, due to low entry barriers characterised by low fixed costs and relatively simple technology, low
absorption by local markets and is generally labour-intensive nature as shown in Figure 4 below.
Figure 4: The beef/milk/leather and leather products value chain in Zimbabwe (Source: Bulawayo Provincial
Industrial Development Strategy, 2024)
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Zimbabwe was ranked 167 and 73 in 2020, out of 195 countries, in terms of exports and imports of raw hides
and skins, valued at about US$2.7 million and US$31 million, respectively; indicating a net importation of
hides and skins, yet with massive potential to turn the tables and eliminate this trade deficit (National
Competitiveness Commission, 2023). This industrialisation of quality leather and leather products is deeply
anchored in the history of Bulawayo as a major leather production hub producing 8 million pairs of shoes in
the 1990s and a long tradition of craftsmanship for value addition that provided a solid reputation across
Africa.
The clothing, textile, footwear and leather (CTFL) value chain is a critical part of industrialisation. Appropriate
utilisation of the CTFL could create jobs and improve export performance. The CTFL sector peaked in 2001,
employing 35 000 people and making significant contributions to GDP and exports. The sector has however
declined due to perennial challenges of import competition, high production costs and a shortage of skilled
workers. The current employment at around 4 000 workers and as of 2015, capacity utilisation was 34%. Plans
are underway by the Bulawayo Leather Cluster through the construction of a factory with a capacity to
produce about 158,400 pairs of shoes. The Zimbabwe Leather Sector Strategy (2021-2030) is in place which
among other objectives seeks to increase capacity utilisation of value-added leather products from 30% to 75%
by 2030. Retooling and recapitalizations of the local textile industry is key for the sector to improve
contribution to the country’s gross domestic product and ultimately sustainable economic growth.
Developing Mineral-Based Value Chains
Zimbabwe is endowed with vast mineral resources that could be extracted for sustainable economic growth
and Bulawayo is richly endowed with various mineral products particularly gold. The mineral sector with gold
as the main driver contributes approximately 40 percent to mineral revenue in Zimbabwe which is about 60%
of total exports. Major exports from the mining sector include gems and precious metals, platinum group
metals, lithium, gold, nickel and diamonds and the major destinations are Asia, Africa and Europe accounting
for 59.8%, 35.4% and 4% of exports respectively. The top export destinations in 2024 were the United Arab
Emirates, South Africa and Mainland China at 36.6%, 27.6% and 17.3%, respectively and India and Belgium
and other countries account for the remaining 28.5%. Whilst the mineral sector is positively contributing to the
fiscus, it is prone to illicit flows through smuggling, illegal dealing, corruption, fraud, tax evasion and
externalization that have siphoned an estimated US$1.8 billion of revenue annually (Ministry of Finance,
2015). The Matebeleland regions are rich in gold, coal, tin, gas and lithium, hence a huge potential for mineral
value addition and beneficiation. Government and private sector can develop and strengthen value chains to
propel provincial growth and the enrichment of the manufacturing sector.
Securing Public Private Partnerships
Secured Public Private Partnerships help bridge infrastructure gaps, attract private investment, creates
opportunities for innovation while enhancing economic growth. Senior managers interviewed supported the
idea of Bulawayo City Council securing public private partnerships especially at this critical period of resource
constraints and economic meltdown. Twenty eight percent of the respondents agreed that business can enter
into mutual partnerships with the City of Bulawayo in costing utilities and also with banks and government on
infrastructure renewal. The government of Zimbabwe at independence in 1980, inherited a solid and well
maintained industrial sector courtesy of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1953-1963) as well as the
UDI government (1964-1980). The government then embarked on pro-poor economic policies purportedly to
redressed colonial imbalances which among other negative outcomes led to economic decline especially in
industrialisation started witnessing the closure and relocation of foreign owned companies back to parent
countries. Industrial and agricultural output further slumped to negative output and employment levels
following the 2000 fast track land reform programme. The once vibrant industrial smoke characteristic of
Bulawayo metropolitan province also disappeared as major business premises became worship centres or
derelict empty and sombre shells. Government has however made an explicit undertaking to reindustrialise the
City by lending support for critical skills and capital for infrastructure renewal necessary to attract local and
international investors. Public Private Partnerships face risk of poor credit ratings, capacity constraints,
corruption and a culture of lack of concern for infrastructure maintenance, all need to be addressed to achieve
successful bridging finance through PPPs.
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The Revision of Utilities Costs
The high cost of utilities presents another setback facing not only Bulawayo industries but other cities as well.
The recent revision of fees in the transport sector is testimony of a number of charges and prices that need
revision as they are stifling rather than promoting business. These utilities costs scenarios need urgent review
for companies in Bulawayo and the rest of the country to be regionally and internationally competitive.
Recently the Finance Minister announced significant reductions and eliminations of permits and fees across
various sectors in Zimbabwe as part of the government's “Ease of Doing Business” programme. The objectives
and expected outcomes of this government intervention included the need to improve the business environment
by lowering operational costs, enhance competitiveness and attract both local and foreign direct investment.
The move also supports Zimbabwe's goal of achieving an upper middle-income society by 2030. The permits
and fees reduction exercise would be extended and rightly so to tourism, transport, retail, and other sectors so
that ultimately the country would benefit from the membership of the, Southern Africa Development
Community (SADC) and the Common Market for East and Southern Africa (COMESA) and the Africa
Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). All utility and service delivery institutions such institutions such as
the Bulawayo City Council (BCC), Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA) and Zimbabwe Electricity
Supply Authority (ZESA) among others should be encouraged to rationalise permits and fees to promote
industrial growth. Similar studies done a researcher Chinjova (2019) alludes that high utility costs in Bulawayo
industrial parks of Belmont and Donnington has been dampening growth.
Reviving, Retooling and Re-equipping the National Railways of Zimbabwe
Several factors drive the reviving, retooling and re-equipping the National Railways of Zimbabwe (NRZ) and
these include economic growth and development, efficient transportation, job creation and poverty reduction,
regional integration and trade, infrastructure modernization and environmental benefits. Bulawayo is the
headquarters of the NRZ that has an excellent railway line linking South Africa, Botswana through Plumtree
and Zambia through Victoria Falls border posts. There has been substantial deterioration in the railway
network in the past decade precipitated by an aging track, insufficient ballast rail wear, deteriorating
earthworks and obsolete rail signaling and communications equipment and lack of spare parts. Investment is
required to refurbish existing railway system, acquisition of new locomotives and electrification of the railway
system. Revival of the railways is vital for the ease of movement of goods and services to SADC, COMESA
and Afro-Asian markets. Seventy senior management respondents expressed the benefit of having the railways
as a huge cargo mover at cheaper cost and linked to regional and international markets. They argued about the
possibility of reviving and rekindling the state of art railway system capacitated with the right calibre of
managers meritoriously recruited at all levels tasked to run the railways as a critical public business entity.
Zimbabwe Government Support
In seeking to reduce the country credit risk by clearing outstanding arrears to multilateral lenders in order to
unlock fresh capital, the government has indicated a growing political will to resuscitate the local industry and
has courted businesses as strategic partners. Local industries support coming with various incentives can be
extended through duty rebate on capital equipment, repositioning of the import substitution and development
strategies for the benefit of local industries, particularly those located in Bulawayo. Approximately 25% of
senior management expressed the vitality of government support towards the re-industrialisation of Bulawayo.
These senior managers unanimously agreed that the more than tenfold downsizing of industry precipitated the
closure of industries, flight of capital and migration of skilled labour force to the diaspora. Settling the USD16
billion debt owed to international lenders by government, should unlock fresh capital for spearheading the 4
th
Industrial Revolution and open new credit lines in an economy dry of cheap funding (National Budget, 2025).
As part of government support, the economic policy mix should be characterised by efficiency and consistency
through policies aligned towards growth estimates of the 4
th
IR.
The economic integration of the Small to Medium Enterprises
SMEs are key in reviving Bulawayo’s industrial sector, leveraging agility and innovation to drive economic
growth through support for formalization, building capacity and training, improving access to finance,
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promoting market linkages as well as adopting technological innovation. The economic decline since 2000 was
the unintended outcomes of the government populist policies associated with the FTLRP (Techfin Research,
2006). Huge levels of unemployment directly fed into the already ballooning informal economy as citizens
struggled to find income generating activities for household survival. During the period 2009-2011, the
economy enjoyed temporal stability of macroeconomic fundamentals but the liquidity crunch caused failure of
big companies to recover. Zimbabwe became the most informalised country in Africa and second from Bolivia
globally (Median & Schneider, 2018). ZIMSTATS economic census (2025), indicated that 76% percent
informalisation of the economic activities in 2025. SMEs have since become the engine of economic activity
in Zimbabwe and their participation highly integral for national development (Nyathi & Chikwala, 2024).
Informal sector activities by their nature are difficult to reign into the government revenue collection and
compliance system. However, real industry revival and retooling do not lie in formalising the informal sector
but in development and implementation of strategies that will lead to “go for broke” investments to resuscitate
and create new large scale companies. Government driven retooling schemes such as the one halted and
replaced VAT deferment in July 2022, that saw about 200 Bulawayo companies acquiring equipment and
technology that enhanced efficiency, increased production and employment should be re-introduced (MIC,
2023). Government and stakeholder roles of policy support, collaboration and partnerships as well as tacking
infrastructure deficits, water and sanitation problems and governance reforms are necessary for integrating
SMEs into the mainstream economy.
The Enhanced Import Substitution Industrialisation Strategy
Several sub-Saharan African countries have employed the import substitution industrialization (ISI) strategy to
promote local industries, increase self-sufficiency and reduce dependence on foreign production systems
(Ocorian, 2018). Zimbabwe alongside Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya and Ethiopia are implementing the ISI to
develop local industrialisation, development and boost domestic industries. As a strategy, the economic
concept of industrialisation involves the conceptualization and application of macroeconomic policies within
the national space to spur the domestic production of goods and services in place of reliance on imports
(Bruton, 1998 cited by Oluikpe, 2020). The ISI is a domestic economic policy aimed at replacing imports with
domestic production in order to promote locally driven economic growth. This ISI strategy is synonymous
with countries under sanctions as well as those with an unsustainable foreign imports bill. Zimbabwe
implemented ISI policies through Statutory Instrument 64 of 2016 aimed at promoting local production
following years of pressure from the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act (ZiDERA), a US law
enacted in December 2001, aimed at supporting democratic change, promoting economic growth and restoring
the rule of law. Nigeria and South African economies incentivise local companies to ramp up production and
pride themselves in the consumption of local goods. Nigeria implemented import substitution policies that
mixed short-term results but strongly indicting a good long run outcome for the country. Domestic production,
ticked upwards and manufacturing sector gain significant capacity expansion due to increased local demand
(Oluipe, 2020). The ISI strategy usually faces challenges of systems inefficiencies, protectionism and limited
market size in most developing countries and Bulawayo re-industrialisation will not be unique once affected
by these.
Broadened engagement and reengagement drive
Broadening Zimbabwe's engagement and re-engagement drive is vital for the country's reindustrialisation
efforts, that seek to boost economic growth, attract investments and promote industrial development. Before
the economy weakened in the 1990s, Zimbabwe used to supply the European Union and Commonwealth
markets with approximately 40,000 tonnes of beef per annum, making the EU a primary market for her beef
exports. Zimbabwean agricultural, horticultural and floricultural exports to the EU accounted for 54% and
these trade linkages positioned and stabilised the Bulawayo industrialisation sector. There was however a
colossal decline of the economy characterised by plummeting industrial activity, spiralling inflation that
reached 238 sextillion percent by 2008, following implementation of the 2000 Fast Track Land Reform Policy
Programme (FTLRP) (World Bank, 2009). The IMF suspended the country from borrowing in mid-2001 due
to a high tendency of defaults on payments (IMF, 2001). Since 2018, the government has been on a drive to
revive the economy through engaging EU and Commonwealth markets capable of absorbing production output
from the country’s manufacturing sector including Bulawayo’s industrialisation sector. The engagement and
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reengagement drive seeks to attract investments, technology and knowledge transfer, economic diversification,
regional and global integration and industrial revival. These initiatives meant attracting foreign direct
investment that was necessary for modernising industries and stimulating economic growth, reducing on a few
industrial sectors like agriculture and mining, reviving and expanding industrial sectors to promote diversified
exports, enhancing trade opportunities regionally and internationally as well as boosting production capacities
of local industries.
The Green Industry Initiative
The Green Industry initiative is crucial for the revival of Bulawayo industries, including promoting sustainable
economic growth and environmental responsibility through key aspects such as sustainable development,
environmental management, support and partnerships, economic opportunities and climate resilience. The
initiative focuses on resource-efficient and cleaner production, minimizing environmental impacts while
boosting industrial competitiveness. The strategy shall ensure that industrial transformation is pursued for
purposes of environmental sustainability and adoption of cleaner and more efficient technologies in view of
the need to mitigate emerging challenges of climate change and resource scarcity. Three percent of senior
management concurred that for manufacturing sector in Bulawayo to make meaningful gains, adoption green
industry initiatives were necessary as most international markets now require compliance to the demands of
climate and environmental changes. The relevance to Bulawayo reindustrialisation touches on local initiatives,
sectoral focus as well as challenges and needs. The various stakeholders should develop projects promoting
green enterprises, innovative farming (hydroponics, aquaculture) and youth empowerment. The focus should
target potential growth areas such as leather, textiles, mining and engineering value chains that have been
identified for development under the SEZs. The need to address the water scarcity, energy challenges and
access as well as tax burdens are all necessary for industrial revival alongside embracing of green technologies.
The Role of Industrial Parks and Special Economic Zones
Industrial parks and special economic zones play a pivotal role in industrialisation efforts anywhere because
they driving economic growth, attract investments and promote sustainable development. These SEZs offer
tax incentives, state of the art infrastructure and streamlined regulatory development processes for the purposes
of attracting both local and international investors. The SEZs should help diversify Bulawayo's economy,
reduce the country’s reliance on raw commodity exports by promoting value addition in agriculture,
industrialisation and services. The industrial parks and SEZs are associated with the generation of employment
opportunities fostering skills development that contribute to local economic empowerment. Cases of successful
SEZs include Morocco's Tanger Med SEZ, Ethiopia's Hawassa Industrial Park, Rwanda's Kigali Special
Economic Zone, Mauritius' Export Processing Zones and South Africa's Coega. Evidence shows that in South
Africa SEZs have led to promotion of industrial development and job creation (LGSETA, 2025). Zimbabwe
designated Sunway city, Beitbridge, Belmont/Donnington/Kelvin corridor, Fernill Hill, Umvumela and
Victoria Falls (Masuwe) as SEZs. The Bulawayo City Council identified virgin land in Umvumila industrial
park as strategically positioned for a SEZs (ZIDA, 2025). Senior managers interviewed agreed that industrial
parks are the new business philosophy and hoped that it would lead to the revival of the manufacturing sector
and attract new investors with the up-to-date 4IR technologies. However, some senior managers still regard the
current infrastructure as sufficient, just needing deliberate funding and other investment for refurbishment
through partnership between the government and the private sector. The key success factors for implementing
industrial parks and SEZs include clear objective accompanied by a well-orchestrated planning and clear goals
aligned with national objectives. Other factors such as government and private sector support and involvement
as well as linkages with the local economy specialization and comparative advantage are equally important.
Reindustrialization, Devolution and Decentralization Policies
The reindustrialization drive and Zimbabwe's devolution and decentralization policy is multifaceted and is
aimed at boosting both local economic growth and industrial development. Devolution brings decision-making
to the grassroots where policies, programmes and development plans are created and implemented (Devolution
& Decentralisation Policy, 2020). Eleven percent of the respondents agreed that devolution could be a vehicle
that could assist Bulawayo harness funding needed for the development necessary to ultimately spur industrial
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activity to previous peak levels. Section 264(1) of the Constitution states that whenever appropriate,
governmental powers and responsibilities must be devolved to Provincial and Metropolitan Councils and Local
Authorities which are competent to carry out those responsibilities efficiently and effectively (Constitution,
2013). In South Africa decentralisation has empowered provincial economies through nurturing
industrialisation growth, job creation, infrastructure growth and provision of social services to the local
population. Similarly, when reindustrialisation is well executed Bulawayo could realise such gains.
CONCLUSION
Theoretically, the study advanced the growing interest and knowledge of the role of the manufacturing sector
towards economic development in developing countries by bringing together available literature in identifying
knowledge gaps and exploring new directions in this field. The study concludes that effective re-
industrialization of Bulawayo and Zimbabwe in general requires robust collaboration across sectors, given the
central role of manufacturing in driving economic growth and development. The manufacturing sector
underpins the functionality of other sectors by supplying essential equipment, inputs and requisite
infrastructure. Strengthening inter-sectoral industry linkages guarantees the catalytic role of manufacturing,
including broadening economic transformation in agriculture, energy, mining, transport and services. This
paper buttresses the existing potential of the revival and revitalisation of Bulawayo as industrial hub of the
country boasting diverse industries in food and beverages, clothing, textiles, beef, leather, dairy,
pharmaceuticals, engineering, industrial chemicals, plastics and financial services in their modernised form.
Limited local and international investments, lack of vigorous and effective lobbying by local and national
policy lawmakers for central government to walk the talk remain a challenge.
The study recommends the following:
Government
The government of Zimbabwe needs to deliberately craft Bulawayo Revival and Reintegration Policy
through the devolution agenda. Genuine revival of industries in Bulawayo is through incentivising
international and domestic investors to invest in the province.
Moreso, business across all sectors reveal that there is over-taxation and overlapping permits, hence there
is need for streamlining permits and taxes.
There is need to vigorously promote the procuring of raw materials of high quality in Zimbabwe rather
than always relying on China, the US and Europe.
Modernised efficient industrial bases developed through investments in digital technological infrastructure
that will outlive the 4
th
industrial revolution should ultimately be targeted through deliberate local and
national industrialisation policies.
International partners
Zimbabwe development and reindustrialisation is devoid without long term affordable finance. For local
companies to compete on the African continent through AfCFTA there is need for investment on robotic
machinery that improves efficiency and quality of goods.
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