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Exploring the Role of Blockchain Attributes in Automating Payments
in the Construction Sector: A Systematic Review
Anis Syafiqah Alias., Farrah Azwanee Aminuddin., Norhazren Izatie Mohd
Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor
Bahru, Malaysia
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000550
Received: 26 October 2025; Accepted: 01 November 2025; Published: 18 November 2025
ABSTRACT
This systematic literature review analyses the impact of blockchain attributes on the automation of payments
within the construction industry, where delays, disagreements, and insufficient transparency have historically
impeded performance and confidence. Thirty-seven studies sourced from Scopus and Web of Science were
examined in accordance with PRISMA guidelines to identify five principal themes namely smart contracts and
payment automation, enabling technologies and data integration, financial mechanisms and cash flow, supply
chain visibility and provenance, and adoption with governance considerations. The results demonstrate that
blockchain-enabled smart contracts especially when integrated with BIM, IoT, and reality capture, facilitate
precise, automated, and transparent payment procedures that diminish disputes and improve efficiency.
Blockchain-based financial instruments like project bank accounts and tokenised settlements, enhance liquidity
and cash flow management. Nonetheless, technical immaturity, interoperability deficiencies, regulatory
ambiguity, and cultural resistance persist in hindering implementation. Blockchain exhibits significant
potential to synchronise construction payment systems with the goals of Construction 4.0, subject upon the
advancement of solid governance frameworks and pilot implementations.
Keywords: blockchain technology, smart contract, automation, payment
INTRODUCTION
The construction industry is infamous for its complex and frequently ineffective payment procedures, resulting
in considerable delays, disagreements, and a deficiency of transparency. These challenges not only impede
project effectiveness but also undermine stakeholder trust. Recent study has suggested the integration of
blockchain technology with Building Information Modelling (BIM) to automate payments in the construction
sector, thereby addressing these persistent challenges. Blockchain, featuring a decentralised ledger and smart
contract functionalities provides a safe and transparent approach for documenting and performing transactions.
Together with the accurate project data provided by BIM, this interface can enable real-time payments upon
milestone completion, increasing stakeholder trust, decreasing conflicts, and increasing transparency [1], [2],
[3].
The construction industry has long faced systemic challenges related to delayed payments, disputes, and
fragmented financial accountability, which significantly hinder project performance, stakeholder trust, and
overall sector productivity [4], [5], [6]. Conventional payment processes typically involve multiple
intermediaries and manual verification procedures, resulting in prolonged approval cycles, information
asymmetry, and opportunities for opportunistic behaviour [4], [5], [6]. As the industry progresses toward
digital transformation under the broader agenda of Construction 4.0, there is a growing imperative to rethink
payment mechanisms to ensure transparency, automation, and equitable financial flow among project
participants [7], [8].
Despite increased interest in digitalization, payment processes in construction projects remain predominantly
manual, opaque, and vulnerable to disputes [8], [9], [10]. Existing financial procedures are frequently
disconnected from real-time project progress data, leading to inaccuracies in certification and delays in
disbursement [8], [11], [12]. While blockchain technology and smart contracts have demonstrated the capacity
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to provide immutable records, decentralised verification, and automated transaction execution [8], [10], [13],
their adoption in construction remains limited [13], [14]. The industry lacks clarity regarding how blockchain
attributes can be effectively leveraged to automate payment flows, what enabling technologies are required,
and which barriers must be addressed for successful implementation [8], [13], [15]. Accordingly, there is a
need for a systematic synthesis of current knowledge to establish how blockchain can contribute to payment
automation in construction and to identify the key mechanisms, challenges, and research gaps [8], [13], [14].
This study seeks to systematically examine the role of blockchain technology in enabling payment automation
within the construction sector. The specific objectives are:
1. To examine the role of blockchain-enabled smart contracts in automating construction payment
processes and assess their effectiveness in reducing disputes and delays.
2. To analyse how enabling technologies such as BIM, IoT, and reality capture can be integrated with
blockchain systems to enhance transparency and improve progress verification.
3. To identify blockchain-based financial mechanisms that support improved liquidity and cash flow
management in construction projects.
4. To evaluate how blockchain contributes to enhancing supply chain visibility, asset provenance, and
payment security within construction projects.
5. To determine the key adoption factors, governance frameworks, and organizational strategies required
to overcome barriers to blockchain implementation in construction payment systems.
To address these objectives, the systematic review is guided by the following research questions:
1. How do blockchain-enabled smart contracts influence the automation of construction payment
processes, and what effects do they have on reducing disputes and delays?
2. In what ways can enabling technologies such as BIM, IoT, and reality capture be integrated with
blockchain systems to enhance transparency and progress verification?
3. What blockchain-based financial mechanisms have been proposed to improve liquidity and cash flow
management in construction projects?
4. How does blockchain contribute to enhancing supply chain visibility, asset provenance, and payment
security in construction?
5. What adoption factors, governance frameworks, and organizational change strategies are necessary to
overcome implementation barriers?
LITERATURE REVIEW
Blockchain technology, characterised by its decentralised, secure, and transparent attributes, holds
considerable potential for automating payments within the construction industry. The construction
industries marked by complex projects and many players, frequently encounters issues pertaining to trust,
transparency, and efficiency in financial dealings. This technology can resolve these concerns by offering a
distributed ledger that securely and immutably records and shares data. Permissioned blockchain platforms,
such as Hyperledger Fabric, can establish a business connection among project participants, enabling
automated financial transactions during the construction process [16]. This connection can improve
transparency, security, and oversight of financial transactions, as evidenced by frameworks that integrate
Building Information Modelling (BIM) and cost planning data into blockchain systems [16]. Moreover,
blockchain's capacity to automate interim payments and oversee contracts via smart contracts can markedly
diminish payment delays and conflicts, hence facilitating more efficient project execution [17], [18].
In addition, the application of blockchain in the construction industry encompasses not only payment
automation but also many elements of project management and supply chain logistics. The attributes of
blockchain, including immutability, security, and transparency can optimise procurement procedures, increase
project accountability, and elevate overall efficiency [19], [20]. For instance, blockchain enables real-time
monitoring of materials and safe preservation of transaction records in which essential for establishing trust
and transparency among stakeholders [21]. Furthermore, blockchain-based smart contracts can automate
complex contractual agreements, diminishing the necessity for intermediaries and minimising the likelihood of
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disagreements [22]. The integration of blockchain with technologies such as AI and IoT may enhance its
functionalities, offering intelligent and secure solutions for the management of construction projects [23].
Notwithstanding these benefits, the use of blockchain within the construction sector remains still emerging,
necessitating further research to tackle technological, regulatory, and cultural obstacles [13], [24].
With these considerations in mind, empirical research and case studies have revealed the practical advantages
and obstacles associated with the implementation of blockchain in construction. Blockchain-based frameworks
for contract management and payment automation have demonstrated potential in mitigating risks associated
with cash flow and conflict resolution [17]. Case studies have illustrated blockchain's capacity to enhance
supply chain management through improved data sharing, reduced transaction costs, and increased transaction
efficiency [25]. Nevertheless, obstacles such as company's hesitance to incur extra expenses, the scarcity of
blockchain-based software applications, and the necessity for comprehensive digitalisation initiatives across
the industry persist as significant challenges [24]. To address these problems, it is important to establish
industry-specific blockchain platforms, improve stakeholder education, and formulate comprehensive
regulatory frameworks [13]. The construction industry is increasingly integrating blockchain technology,
which is expected to enhance transparency, efficiency, and sustainability, hence revolutionising the
management and execution of construction projects [21], [26], [27].
In a nutshell Figure 1 depicts the conceptual framework of blockchain applications for automating payments in
the construction industry. The diagram highlights three main domains where blockchain has influence such
as data integration, smart contracts, and automation of payments. Data integration emphasizes the
interoperability of blockchain with application programs, IoT, legacy systems, and Building Information
Modeling (BIM), ensuring seamless information flow across platforms. Smart contracts are linked to Ethereum
applications and contract administration, reinforcing efficiency, transparency, and trust in contractual
processes. Meanwhile, the automation of payments is linked to regulatory compliance and cash flow
management, highlighting blockchain's capacity to enhance financial operations and mitigate payment delays.
The image illustrates how blockchain attributes link technological, contractual, and financial aspects to resolve
ongoing payment issues in the construction sector.
Figure 1 Concept map for the introduction of Exploring the Role of Blockchain Attributes in Automating
Payments in the Construction Sector (Source: Powered by Scopus AI, Wed Sep 24 2025)
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This study adopts a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) approach to synthesise existing research on the
application of blockchain technology in automating payment processes within the construction sector. The
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SLR method was selected to enable an exhaustive, transparent, and replicable examination of scholarly
evidence, consistent with established review protocols. The review adheres to the Preferred Reporting Items
for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, ensuring methodological rigour in the
identification, screening, eligibility assessment, and final selection of relevant literature. The review focuses on
peer-reviewed journal articles to ensure reliability and academic integrity, while excluding non-scholarly
sources that may lack methodological robustness.
Screening
Two major academic scientific databases—Scopus and Web of Science (WoS)—were selected as the primary
data sources due to their extensive coverage of high-impact and peer-reviewed publications across engineering,
construction management, and digital technology domains. The search strategy was developed through
iterative refinement of keywords and Boolean operators, informed by preliminary scoping studies and
terminology mapping using thesauri and subject indexing references.
The final search strings were constructed to capture studies that simultaneously addressed blockchain, payment
processes, and the construction industry. The search terms included variations and synonyms to maximise
retrieval sensitivity, as shown in Table 2. The searches were conducted in September 2025, resulting in an
initial dataset of 165 records across both databases.
Table 1 Search string
Scopus
( TITLE-ABS-KEY ( "Blockchain*" OR "Distributed Ledger*" OR "Blockchain technolog*" )
AND TITLE-ABS-KEY ( "payment*" OR "construction payment*" OR "interim payment*" OR
"progress payment*" OR "payment automation*" OR "payment authorization" OR "automated
payment*" ) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY ( "construction industr*" OR "construction sector*" OR
"construction project*" OR "building construction*" OR "building industr*" OR "architecture,
engineering and construction*" OR "AEC" ) )Date of Access: September 2025
Wos
("Blockchain*" OR "Distributed Ledger*" OR "Blockchain technolog*") AND ("payment*" OR
"construction payment*" OR "interim payment*" OR "progress payment*" OR "payment
automation*" OR "payment authorization" OR "automated payment*" ) AND ("construction
industr*" OR "construction sector*" OR "construction project*" OR "building construction*" OR
"building industr*" OR "architecture, engineering and construction*" OR "AEC" ) (Topic)Date of
Access: September 2025
Screening and Eligibility
The screening phase involved the systematic removal of duplicate entries and the evaluation of remaining
records based on relevance to the research objectives. Duplicate elimination reduced the dataset to 93 unique
records. These records underwent a title and abstract screening according to predefined inclusion and exclusion
criteria:
Table 2 Selection criterion is searching
Criterion
Inclusion
Language
English
Manuscript type
Peer-reviewed journal articles
Research focus
Blockchain applied to construction
payment or financial workflows
Following screening, 54 articles proceeded to full-text eligibility review. Full-text examination resulted in the
exclusion of 17 records due to lack of relevance, insufficient empirical grounding, or unavailability of full text.
A final set of 37 articles was selected for qualitative synthesis. A PRISMA-compliant flow diagram
summarising the identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion stages is presented in Figure 2.
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Data Abstraction and Analysis
To derive systematic insights from the selected literature, an integrative thematic synthesis approach was
applied. First, a structured data extraction matrix was developed to record key attributes from each study,
including research objectives, methodology, technological focus, implementation context, and reported
outcomes. This facilitated systematic comparison and categorization.
Second, the extracted data were analysed to detect conceptual patterns, recurring research foci, and thematic
linkages across studies. Codes were generated inductively through iterative reading, cross-verification among
the research team, and memo-logging to trace interpretive decisions. Through successive refinement, these
codes were clustered into five overarching themes representing the core dimensions of blockchain-enabled
payment automation in construction:
1. Smart Contracts and Payment Automation
2. Enabling Technologies and Data Integration
3. Financial Mechanisms and Cash Flow Governance
4. Supply Chain Visibility and Asset Provenance
5. Adoption Barriers, Governance, and Knowledge Transfer
The thematic synthesis ensured that findings were not merely aggregated but conceptually interpreted, thus
providing meaningful insights into the technological, procedural, and organisational implications of blockchain
adoption in construction payment systems.
Figure 2 Flow diagram of the proposed searching study
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FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Theme 1: Smart Contracts and Payment Automation
The continuing issue of delayed and disputed payments in the construction sector has prompted researchers to
explore blockchain-based smart contracts as a possible solution. Numerous studies emphasise that automation
using smart contracts enhances efficiency, precision, and reliability in payment administration. [28] created a
model-based system (BCT-SmContract) that demonstrated expedited execution and improved information
accuracy, thereby dramatically reducing disputes among stakeholders. Likewise, [29] introduced an extensive
blockchain-based solution for lump-sum contracts, mitigating delays and conflicts through the provision of
secure and transparent payment records. In addition to these findings, [30] proposed a blockchain-based
architecture targeting the payment freezing and disbursement cycle, demonstrating enhancements in the
reliability and efficiency of progress payments. Collectively, these findings underscore the significance of
blockchain technology in revolutionising payment processes into more reliable and dispute-resistant systems
[28], [29], [30].
The integration of blockchain with digital technologies, including BIM and automated data capture, has
emerged as a notable study area. [3] presented a scan-to-BIM methodology integrated with blockchain smart
contracts, guaranteeing automatic payment disbursement upon the verifiable completion of tasks. [11]
presented a payment automation solution that integrated blockchain smart contracts with robotic reality
capture, facilitating efficient and transparent cash flow while reducing intermediaries. [7] extended this
approach by introducing an integrated BIM-blockchain system (BBS), demonstrating significant efficiency in
decentralised progress payments while enhancing transparency and auditability. The cumulative evidence
indicates that integrating blockchain with BIM and automation tools establishes a transparent connection
between physical advancement and financial transactions, mitigating conventional inefficiencies in
certification and payment processes [3], [7], [11].
In addition to that, a prevalent subject in the literature is the significance of decentralisation and transparency
in addressing trust and administrative issues in construction payments. [31] presented the SMTSEC system,
which ensures safe transactions via a decentralised blockchain protocol, eliminating dependence on costly
intermediaries. This aligns with the findings of [4] which indicate that decentralised solutions eliminated
reliance on significantly intermediated payment apps, hence enhancing efficiency. [5] reinforced this
perspective by introducing BIMcontracts, a blockchain-based framework that enables automated and traceable
billing processes, thus enhancing trust among stakeholders. These contributions together demonstrate that
decentralised smart contracts improve trust in financial transactions while reducing dependence on
conventional financial institutions or administrative intermediaries [4], [5], [31].
Another body of research has investigated smart contracts for complex payment cycles and project-specific
constraints. [12] introduced a BIM-integrated smart contract approach to progress payments, which reduced
disputes and expedited disbursements, especially in lump-sum projects. [32] furthered this idea by developing
a workflow engine for the production and visualisation of smart contracts, thereby improving collaboration and
automation in construction business operations. [30] developed a system architecture that addresses payment
guarantees and disbursement cycles, highlighting its compliance with existing contractual arrangements while
including smart automation. These contributions together emphasise how blockchain-enabled frameworks are
being tailored to fit in with the complex reality of construction payment procedures, assuring both practical
application and legal compliance [12], [30], [32].
Lastly, numerous studies validate the extensive benefits of blockchain-enabled payment automation in
reducing conflicts and improving performance at the project level. [28] exhibited enhancements in the speed
and accuracy of contract execution, resulting in a reduction in disputes. [7] claimed enhanced transparency and
accountability, especially with financial misconduct and cash flow security. [3] emphasised the advantages of
trust-building facilitated by payment automation linked to verifiable construction progress. The findings
altogether demonstrate that blockchain-enabled smart contracts represent a transformative innovation,
consistently evidencing their capacity to enhance timeliness, accuracy, and fairness in construction payments
across diverse contexts [3], [7], [28].
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Across the literature, smart contracts consistently emerge as a core mechanism for reducing payment delays,
enhancing transparency, and improving trust among contracting parties. Their effectiveness relies on accurate,
verifiable progress data, which underscores the importance of integration with BIM and reality capture
technologies. Decentralisation reduces dependency on third-party institutions and lowers administrative
burdens. While technical feasibility is well established, wider adoption depends on alignment with legal
frameworks and industry-standard contracting practices.
Theme 2: Enabling Technologies & Data Integration (BIM, IoT, Reality Capture, Scan)
The construction sector has encountered persistent issues with productivity, inefficiencies, and payment delays,
which have caused researchers to investigate blockchain-enabled smart contracts as a viable solution.
Numerous studies emphasise the significance of blockchain in promoting safe, traceable, and automated
payment systems. [33] highlighted that blockchain adoption can improve productivity by optimising project
management payments, procurement, and asset management. Meanwhile, [34] created a framework that
integrates blockchain with smart contracts and other advanced technologies to strengthen security of payment
(SOP) mechanisms. [5] enhanced this discussion by introducing a blockchain-based smart contract model for
automated billing integrated with BIM, which enhances payment traceability and transparency, hence
mitigating persistent trust issues in construction contracts. These studies collectively indicate that blockchain
establishes a basis for enhanced efficiency and accountability in payment management for construction
projects.
The integration of blockchain with digital technologies such as BIM, IoT, and robotic data collection further
enhances automation. [35] presented a prototype integrating BIM, IoT, and Blockchain to automate
monitoring operations and enable prompt contractor payments via decentralised data management. [11]
introduced an autonomous payment system utilising UAVs and UGVs equipped with sensors to monitor
construction progress, then integrating this data with blockchain-based smart contracts for automated
payments. [12] introduced a BIM-integrated smart contract framework to expedite progress payment
processes, mitigate disputes, and enhance cash flow efficiency. These studies collectively illustrate that the
integration of blockchain with BIM and IoT technology generates robust systems wherein payment automation
is directly linked to accurate, real-time project performance data.
The necessity for accurate, verifiable data to facilitate payment automation has been tackled through novel
methods in construction progress monitoring. [3] illustrated the integration of scan-to-BIM technology with
blockchain-based smart contracts, employing photogrammetry and 3D modelling to authenticate progress prior
to initiating automatic payments. [11] explored robotic sensing and distributed storage systems to authenticate
off-chain progress data prior to on-chain payment execution. These approaches emphasise the necessity of
integrating off-chain and on-chain realities, wherein tangible construction operations are securely translated
into blockchain-based payment triggers. These methods augment trust, reduce disputes, and guarantee the
transparent disbursement of funding based on verifiable progress milestones.
In addition to payment automation, blockchain has been explored for its capacity to guarantee material
provenance, enhance supply chain transparency, and facilitate compliance management, all of which indirectly
influence financial flows. [36] introduced an IoT-blockchain framework for monitoring the provenance of
construction materials, enhancing transparency and mitigating fraud in complex supply chains. [37] utilised
QR codes in conjunction with blockchain technology to facilitate semi-automated compliance verification and
asset tracking, offering immutable transaction records that diminish disputes and foster trust among
stakeholders. [38] supported this perspective by presenting a BIM-blockchain system that utilises bitcoin for
immediate payments, thereby linking construction advancements with financial transactions without the need
for intermediaries. These studies demonstrate that blockchain not only automates financial operations but also
enhances governance frameworks within building supply chains.
A major finding in these studies is the agreement that blockchain-enabled smart contracts hold considerable
promise for addressing persistent problems of delayed or non-payments, cash flow interruptions, and
contractual disputes in construction projects. The frameworks presented by [33], [34], [38] underscore the
feasibility of implementing blockchain solutions, whereas research by [3], [35] and [12] highlights the
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advantages of incorporating BIM, IoT, and scan-to-BIM technologies for accurate progress validation.
Moreover, [36] and [37] enhance the discussion by demonstrating how blockchain applies to supply chain
provenance and compliance, which are closely related to secure payment methodologies. Collectively, these
studies reinforce the prevailing agreement that blockchain characteristics, including transparency,
immutability, automation, and decentralisation, are crucial in enhancing payment automation and mitigating
systemic inefficiencies within the construction industry.
The findings show that blockchain’s effectiveness in payment automation is highly dependent on the quality
and reliability of the data used to trigger transactions. Thus, BIM, IoT, robotics, and scan-to-BIM technologies
function as essential enablers rather than supplementary tools. When integrated, they create a continuous,
verifiable digital record of work progression. However, integration requires interoperability standards, digital
literacy, and organisational readiness, which remain ongoing challenges.
Theme 3: Financial Mechanisms, Cash Flow & Banking (PBAs / Crypto / Financial Admin)
Blockchain technologies show significant potential to enhance cash-flow reliability and payment execution in
both offsite and conventional projects. [39], a blockchain-BIM cash-flow management system for offsite
construction was proposed, which automates progress payments, accommodates various procurement
arrangements, and records transactions immutably; proof-of-concept scenarios demonstrated safe financial
transfers without third-party mediation. [40] analysed the hosting of project bank accounts (PBAs) on
blockchain and identified four operational advantages: diminished PBA management workload, potential
democratisation of PBAs throughout supply chains, significantly expedited setup relative to conventional
banking, and enhanced traceability of cash-flow data. [41], a decentralised PBA application was developed that
merged segregated procedures, enhanced liquidity management, and provided an open-source, repeatable
interface for testing. Combined evidence indicates that blockchain serves as an effective tool for reducing
payment friction and enhancing transparency in payment management [39], [40], [41].
Permissioned networks and coded contract functions enable automated financial governance that aligns with
collaborative delivery models. [42], an Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) financial framework was developed
that incorporated reimbursed costs, profit shares, and cost-saving distributions into smart contract functions,
validated through a Hyperledger proof-of-concept, with results emphasising feasibility and user accessibility.
[43], the approach was enhanced through the integration of Hyperledger Fabric and chaincode solutions,
showcasing secure transaction recording and invocation throughout project phases, while facilitating
programmatic rights management during liability periods; case testing validated the system's functionality and
scalability. [44] demonstrated the automation of payment terms and significant reductions in human processing
time in theoretical circumstances. Collectively, these studies demonstrate that permissioned blockchains and
chaincode can facilitate automated financial transactions within project delivery frameworks [42], [43], [44].
The utilisation of crypto assets and tokenised settlement demonstrates the potential for a more integrated
connection between product movement and payment settlement. [45] demonstrated through field tests that
cryptocurrency assets can enhance the granularity and atomicity of connections between cash and product
flows, facilitating payments directly contingent upon product movement, while acknowledging regulatory,
security, and volatility risks. [44] illustrated that a programmable cryptocurrency blockchain may establish an
autonomous economic ecosystem that safeguards financial transactions and minimises human intervention in
payment processing. [39] demonstrated that a blockchain-based cash system for offsite construction can
facilitate claims processing and various procurement techniques while maintaining immutable records—
attributes that assist in aligning physical-phase evidence with financial settlement. These contributions indicate
that crypto-enabled settlements enhance integration between physical and financial supply-chain layers,
depending on careful risk management [39], [44], [45].
Other than the above, practical implementation faces governance, legal, and technical challenges despite
successful prototypes. [45] identified regulatory ambiguity, security issues, and price volatility as primary
hazards associated with token-based settlement and examined solutions for mitigation. [40] warned that the
deployment of adoption by the organization necessitates consideration of current workflow integration,
stakeholder incentives, and legal compliance, despite blockchain's potential to reduce administrative burdens
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for PBAs. [43] underscored the necessity of carefully selecting data storage architecture and endorsement rules
to provide scalability, secure endorsements, and role-based controls; the evaluated Hyperledger systems shown
viability yet exhibited context-dependence. [39] employed many scenarios to validate functioning, but
observed that procurement flexibility and claims management necessitate a robust design. Literature indicates
that the validation of technical prototypes should be coupled with governance frameworks, legal compliance,
and stakeholder involvement to facilitate wider adoption [39], [40], [43], [45].
Synthesis reveals that blockchain-enabled smart contracts, permissioned ledgers, and token-based settlement
constitute a cohesive toolkit for automating construction payments while enhancing traceability and liquidity.
The analysed proofs of concept and case-based validations demonstrate quantifiable operational advantages—
accelerated setup, reduced manual workload, immutable transaction history, and programmable controls for
complex payment logics—while concurrently revealing requirements for regulation, interoperability, and
broader empirical testing across various project types. Future research should emphasise cross-organizational
pilots, the establishment of standards for the legal recognition of on-chain events, and the performance
benchmarking of token-based versus fiat-based settlement approaches [39], [40], [41], [42], [43], [44], [45].
From this, it can be implied that blockchain can strengthen financial governance, liquidity management, and
payment traceability through PBAs, permissioned ledgers, and smart contract-based allocation systems.
Tokenised settlements further enhance alignment between physical progress and financial flow but require
regulatory stability and risk controls. While technical feasibility is demonstrated, industry-wide
implementation necessitates legal clarity, financial institutional cooperation, and coordinated governance
frameworks.
Theme 4: Supply Chain Visibility, Provenance & Asset Tracking
Blockchain applications for payment arrangements show consistent empirical promise for improving
transaction transparency, timeliness, and trust. [46] reported that payment-related blockchain models (for
example, project bank accounts) are easier to implement than other blockchain use-cases and offer streamlined,
transparent transactions that support trust building. [6] found that expert stakeholders judged blockchain plus
smart contracts able to mitigate many persistent payment problems, including partial payments, nonpayment,
long payment cycles, retention, and costs of finance. [47] demonstrated through comparative experiments that
blockchain solutions increased information completeness and accuracy versus conventional digital practice,
with the effect strongest at higher product, trade, and temporal granularity. Together, these findings indicate
that blockchain-enabled payment arrangements can reduce information asymmetry and procedural delays that
commonly cause payment disputes.
Integration of financial settlement with product-flow evidence is a recurrent theme and shows technical
feasibility together with clear limits. [45] documented field cases where token-based payments linked on-chain
settlement directly to product flow, improving granularity and atomicity of cash–product integration while
flagging regulatory, security, and price-volatility risks. [36] presented a layered IoT–blockchain provenance
framework (mainchain/sidechain architecture) and a Hong Kong pilot tracking steel provenance; results
pointed to gains in lifecycle traceability and operational transparency but also exposed scalability, regulatory,
and information-leakage concerns. [46] emphasized that benefits from payment-focused blockchain models
rely on upscaling legacy IT systems and on cultural adaptation across the sector. The combined evidence
suggests that conditioning payments on validated physical evidence is viable, yet practical adoption depends
on handling legal, technical, and organizational constraints.
Asset-tracking and semi-automation of compliance feed directly into payment automation and conflict
reduction. [37] developed a plug-and-play asset-tracking workflow using QR codes, blockchain, and smart
contracts that produced semi-automated compliance checks and an immutable record of transactions;
prototyping showed reduced non-value activities and potential for fewer conflicts, although procedural security
remained necessary. [36] reinforced the importance of IoT-derived provenance footprints to support payment
and quality management, showing how sensor data can feed blockchain custody and downstream applications.
[6] highlighted that smart contracts deployed across supply chains can codify payment rules and reduce
disputes, especially where many short-term suppliers are involved. Collectively, these studies indicate that
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coupling tracking data with coded payment rules strengthens enforceability and reduces administrative burden,
while acknowledging incomplete automation in complex contexts.
However, practical challenges and research directions focus on governance, scalability, and interoperability.
[45] raised concerns about regulatory uncertainty and token-price volatility for crypto-settlements and
recommended mitigation strategies. [46] and [6] noted the need for cultural change, sector-scale IT upgrades,
and compliance with existing legal frameworks to enable broader uptake. [36] signalled risks of information
leakage and called for further work on sidechain privacy and mainchain openness trade-offs. [37] argued that
semi-automation is realistic now, but full automation requires additional procedural controls and stakeholder
incentives. Future work should prioritize cross-organisational pilots that test legal recognition of on-chain
events, standards for data interfaces between IoT/BIM and ledgers, performance benchmarking for token
versus fiat settlement, and governance models that align incentives across multi-tier supply chains.
Findings denote that blockchain enhances supply-chain visibility by creating immutable, auditable records
linking procurement, delivery, and payment processes. When combined with IoT and digital identification
technologies, blockchain improves provenance assurance and reduces disputes. However, practical deployment
depends on overcoming interoperability constraints, protecting commercially sensitive data, and developing
shared data governance standards across organisations.
Theme 5: Adoption, Governance, Barriers, Knowledge Transfer & Reviews
Research on blockchain and smart contracts for construction payments highlights both the opportunities and
challenges associated with technological adoption. One significant barrier lies in the use of cryptocurrencies as
payment mechanisms. [48] reported that despite the potential of cryptocurrencies to provide traceable and
secure financial transactions, their application in construction supply chains is constrained by volatility, lack of
technical expertise, security gaps, and restrictive government regulations. Similarly, [49] identified technical
concerns regarding blockchain’s integration with centralized systems such as banking software, which further
hinders adoption. Complementing these challenges, [50] observed that while blockchain serves as a core driver
of Construction 4.0 by offering immutable and traceable data, its diffusion is slowed by the lack of supporting
infrastructure and unresolved interoperability issues. Together, these findings indicate that while blockchain
has the potential to streamline payment processes, significant technological, regulatory, and systemic barriers
remain.
Beyond barriers, studies also emphasize the critical drivers of blockchain-enabled smart contract adoption in
construction projects. [51] revealed that factors such as trialability, relative advantage, and compatibility with
existing systems significantly influence adoption decisions. These results align with the conclusions of [52],
who identified decentralization, contract autonomy, and enhanced dispute resolution as major benefits of
adoption, particularly in public–private partnership (PPP) projects. [53] reinforced this perspective by
demonstrating that blockchain smart contracts can mitigate power imbalances in construction payment by
decentralizing decision-making and building stakeholder confidence. Collectively, these studies establish that
the technological characteristics of blockchain and smart contracts particularly transparency, autonomy, and
decentralization, form the foundation for broader industry adoption.
The role of blockchain in ensuring fairness, security, and efficiency of interim payments has also been
addressed in several works. [54] developed a blockchain-based framework for automating interim payment
processes, which ensures selective transparency by allowing sensitive financial data to remain private between
parties while publicly sharing general payment records. Similarly, [53] highlighted how smart contracts
embedded in blockchain frameworks enable trust-building and mitigate late or non-payments through
automatic enforcement. Complementing these studies, [55] conducted a systematic review and argued that
blockchain, along with other technologies such as building information modeling and artificial intelligence,
serves as an imperative solution for issues related to quality, progress, and payment certifications. These
findings collectively illustrate blockchain’s ability to create transparent, automated, and enforceable
mechanisms for interim and progress payments in construction projects.
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Blockchain also facilitates systemic improvements in the efficiency of construction project delivery,
particularly when examined through the lens of Construction 4.0. [52] showed that the application of
blockchain-enabled smart contracts in PPP projects ensures greater supply chain visibility and prevents
contractual misapplications, while [50] underscored its role in enabling trustworthy production relationships,
quality traceability, and government regulation. [49] further observed that blockchain enhances data
integration across fragmented software systems, while [54] demonstrated that blockchain-based key
management strategies ensure confidentiality and authenticity in payment systems. Taken together, these
findings suggest that blockchain and smart contracts are not limited to payment functions but extend to broader
roles in construction digital transformation, aligning with the values of Construction 4.0.
In summary, the literature indicates that blockchain and smart contracts hold strong potential for addressing
long-standing payment issues in construction projects, including delays, disputes, and power imbalances.
However, their successful implementation requires overcoming barriers related to technical expertise,
interoperability, regulatory acceptance, and infrastructure readiness. Studies by [48], [51], [52], [55], [53],
[54], [49], and [50] provide a comprehensive foundation that illustrates both the transformative potential and
the practical limitations of blockchain-enabled payment automation in the construction industry.
The literature shows that blockchain adoption extends beyond technical capability and requires cultural,
organizational, and regulatory alignment. Successful implementation depends on stakeholder readiness, digital
skill development, legal recognition of smart contracts, and collaborative governance structures. Therefore,
adoption strategies must be phased, evidence-based, and supported by pilot implementations to build
confidence and institutional learning.
CONCLUSION
This study set out to examine how blockchain technology can enable payment automation in the construction
sector, addressing long-standing issues such as delayed payments, disputes, fragmented accountability, and
inefficiencies in financial workflows. The construction industry continues to rely on manual and intermediary-
dependent payment processes that lack transparency and often lead to conflict and mistrust among
stakeholders. Motivated by the principles of Construction 4.0, this review explored how blockchain, combined
with digital technologies such as BIM, IoT, and reality capture, can support real-time, verifiable, and
automated payment execution.
The literature indicates that blockchain-enabled smart contracts play a central role in automating progress
payments, improving the traceability of financial records, and reducing reliance on intermediaries. When
integrated with accurate progress data captured through BIM, IoT sensors, robotic scanning, and scan-to-BIM
workflows smart contracts can ensure that payments are triggered only upon verifiable construction
milestones. Additionally, blockchain-based financial mechanisms, including project bank accounts (PBAs),
permissioned ledgers, and tokenised settlements, enhance liquidity, transparency, and cash-flow reliability
across supply chains. The findings also show that blockchain strengthens supply-chain provenance and asset
tracking, although widespread adoption remains constrained by interoperability limitations, regulatory
ambiguity, and organisational readiness challenges.
This review contributes to current knowledge by synthesising the technological, financial, and organisational
dimensions of blockchain-enabled payment automation and highlighting how integrated digital ecosystems can
link physical construction progress with automated financial settlements. However, most existing studies rely
on prototypes, simulations, or limited-scale pilot projects, indicating that empirical, real-world implementation
evidence remains scarce.
Future research should focus on developing validated implementation frameworks, conducting cross-
organisational pilot trials, establishing interoperability and data-governance standards, and examining legal
recognition of smart-contract-triggered payments. Expanding studies across different procurement contexts and
regional regulatory environments will be essential to support broader industry adoption.
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