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An Empirical Study on Game-Based Learning for Solar System
Education using E Game Flow Education Model
Nurain Farzana Mohd Fauzi, Azlan Abdul Aziz, Ahmad Kamalrulzaman Othman
and Yusnita Sokman
Computer Science Department, Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Melaka, Malaysia
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000580
Received: 25 October 2025; Accepted: 30 October 2025; Published: 18 November 2025
ABSTRACT
Science is one of the core subjects in primary education. The conceptual complexity of topics such as the solar
system poses persistent challenges for young learners, leading limited interest, low motivation and limited
conceptual retention. This paper addresses this problem through Space Adventure, a game-based learning
application developed using the Rapid Application Development (RAD) methodology and evaluated with the
EGameFlow model. Thirty Year 3 students completed the EGameFlow questionnaire that measured five
dimensions of engagement – concentration, goal clarity, feedback, challenge and knowledge improvement. Both
the Flow Theory and Cognitive Load Theory served as interpretive frameworks to strengthen the methodological
validity analysis with bootstrapping and theoretical sensitivity simulation used to evaluate the stability of the
results. Findings revealed the overall enjoyment level of 90.8% (M=4.54) with concentration attained the highest
mean (M=4.79). The findings support the idea that gaming mechanics that are pedagogically aligned can produce
flow-like engagement with a manageable cognitive load. The study offers a reproducible conceptual model
integrating EGameFlow dimensions with flow and cognitive-load processes for an instructional game design in
primary science education.
Keywords— Solar System Education, Game-based Learning, EGameFlow, instructional design, learning
engagement
INTRODUCTION
Science can be considered both a process and body of knowledge and understanding as human beings acquire
over a long time of discovery, observation, and through experimentation. The term “science,” as defined by the
Merriam–Webster Dictionary, refers to knowledge that can be tested and reproduced. This definition is well
rooted in the Latin word “scientia,” which means knowledge. The term philosophy of science is used to describe
the area of study that deals with the purpose and goals of science, which is not to gather data but information
that can be tested and evaluated so as to obtain a measurable and reliable result.
One of the basics in the elementary class is the solar system, which is one of the main units in the curriculum of
science studies. The solar system is the star system, which is the sun, and all celestial bodies such as the planets,
natural satellites, asteroids, and even comets that revolve around the sun. The sun is the main center and the
dominating body of the system as it maintains the orbit of the other bodies and also the balance in the system.
Our solar system is contained in the milky way galaxy, which Owen (2020) explains is just one of the countless
other galaxies in the universe. Despite its scientific and educational significance, the solar system remains a
conceptually difficult topic for many young learners.
Aksan and Celikler (2015) found that eighth-grade students from Northern Turkey had a poor grasp of planetary
orders and sizes as many could not even list the eight planets correctly. Gorecek Baybars and Can (2018) also
found that there were misconceptions about the solar systems’ structure and size and thus there was a lack of
understanding in between teachers' instructions and students' conceptions. This all indicates that the methods of
teaching used so far have been ineffective in developing students’ thorough and lasting understanding of such
abstract scientific subjects.
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In the digital age today, students are always interacting with technologies and digital media that are interactive
and very much so, their learning methods and participation are deeply affected. Game-Based Learning (GBL)
has become a new trend in the teaching and learning process; it takes the main aspects of video games like
interactivity, feedback, and immersion, and applies them to educational contexts. Studies have indicated that
GBL can increase attention and keep students involved in the learning process in classrooms (Shi, 2019).
Furthermore, the presence of diverse media in the classroom allows for the implementation of active learning
methods, hence, students can interact with the content directly instead of just receiving it passively (Rondon et
al., 2013).
In this context, the use of a GBL strategy for teaching astronomy through the solar system may bring about huge
advantages. Interactivity made possible through digital media would allow teachers to win back students' interest
and to tackle hard concepts that student's usually struggle with in this topic area. Therefore, the main aim of the
project is to create a game-based learning application specifically designed for the Year 3 primary school
students. The application called Space Adventure will not only be a source of fun and pleasure during the process
of learning but also a means to portray correctly and reliably the solar system in the minds of the children. It is
conceived as a teaching aid and a fun tool that will keep the kids' curiosity about science flowing and will improve
the overall quality of early science education using well-prepared teaching methods.
This study addresses this gap by developing and empirically evaluating Space Adventure, a 2-D educational
designed for Year 3 students to learn solar system concepts. The study integrates both the Flow Theory
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) and Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 1988) to explain how optimal engagement and
efficient cognitive processing coexist in a well-designed educational game. The research objectives are threefold:
1. To evaluate learner enjoyment and motivation using the EGameFlow model.
2. To interpret engagement outcomes through Flow Theory (FT) and Cognitive Load Theory (CLT).
3. To develop a conceptual model linking enjoyment, flow experience, cognitive load, and learning outcomes
in digital game-based learning.
This study contributes empirically to the design of effective digital learning tools for primary science education
and theoretically to the understanding of how flow and cognitive-load mechanism work in tandem to support
learning in a game-based contexts.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Misconception in Solar System Science Education
In recent years, there has been a growing emphasis on structuring science education around broad, integrative
concepts rather than superficial coverage of numerous isolated topics. This shift seeks to avoid the so-called
“mile-wide and inch-deep” curriculum that limits students to fragmented knowledge with minimal conceptual
depth (Plummer et al., 2015). Instead, science education is increasingly expected to provide learners with a
coherent framework of interconnected scientific ideas that can be applied across contexts and disciplines.
Developing such a framework enables students not only to acquire factual knowledge but also to cultivate higher-
order cognitive skills such as problem-solving, reasoning, and inquiry-based thinking.
In the whole elementary science curriculum, the solar system is one of the most fundamental yet abstract topics.
Students are introduced to topics such as astronomical systems, gravitational dynamics and the structure of the
universe. It is therefore imperative and vital for the students to master this concept as it helps to form the
foundation for more advanced studies in astronomy, physics, and space science. Furthermore, active engagement
in learning about the solar system is also significant in enhancing the development of critical and scientific
literacy. These factors are deemed essential in preparing future generations who are capable of innovation,
leadership, and contributing to national development.
Modern science education increasingly intersects with advancements in digital technology and artificial
intelligence (AI). The proliferation of intelligent systems, interactive learning platforms, and immersive digital
environments has transformed the pedagogical landscape, offering new avenues for reimagining how scientific
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knowledge is delivered and acquired. These technologies enable adaptive, data-driven, and experiential learning
processes that fundamentally reshape the ways learners engage with content and collaborate within digital
ecosystems. Furthermore, the widespread use of social media and online networks has become a defining element
of contemporary learning behavior, influencing information consumption patterns, cognitive engagement, and
students’ overall motivation toward scientific inquiry.
The review in this study has three main functions. Firstly, this study synthesizes findings form previous research
on science education, particularly on the role of new technologies in enhancing comprehension of astronomy
concepts, including the solar system. Secondly, the study also examines the theoretical implications of
integrating AI, digital technology, and social media into teaching methodologies with a focus on cognitive
development and learner engagement. Finally, this study also points future research areas, highlighting that
technology-based learning methods that can enhance understanding, maintain learner motivation, and address
longstanding misconceptions in science education.
Issues Related in Learning Solar System
Several studies have reported that young learners often exhibit declining interest in science education. A key
challenge arises from the limited availability of engaging and interactive learning resources, which diminishes
students’ motivation—particularly in abstract topics such as the solar system. The reliance on inadequate
instructional material and media, and traditional pedagogical methods can contribute to reduced learner
engagement thus resulting in a mismatch between the educators’ expectations and the learning outcomes
(Priyatin, 2021). Reading textbooks in traditional education is frequently challenging for children, especially
because it calls for their imaginations to conjure up distant and invisible objects. Due to the intricacy of the
prevailing ideas and concepts, students also felt that science education was abstract (Kasinathan et al., 2018;
Bhakti et al., 2019). Scientific principles that are not visible to the human eye include things like air pressure,
current flow, and photosynthesis. Thus, a strong visual sense is needed to understand such scientific principles
and notions.
Additionally, due to the complexity of the concepts and the need for extensive visualisation, students sometimes
struggle to understand what they are studying about the solar system. According to Zaki et al. (2018), many
sources, including the school textbook, are only available in 2D images, which makes it difficult for pupils to
understand the solar system issue. Because the events that occur, such as solar system members, the recurrence
of day and night, the phases of the moon, and eclipses, cannot be directly presented in the classroom, the solar
system is one of the intangible learning materials of science (Bhakti et al., 2019). As a result, children had trouble
grasping the idea of the solar system. The 3D image can be used as a substitute to the 2D images from the
textbook. Because it encourages students to engage in active learning, design thinking, and problem solving, 3D
technology is an extremely effective educational tool (Wisdom & Novak, 2019).
Game-Based Learning (GBL)
Games and education have become increasingly popular since games have taken on such a significant role in our
culture. People who use game principles that have been acknowledged and used in real-world settings are said
to be engaging in game-based learning (Pho and Dinscore, 2015). GBL environments merge cognitive and
affective processes to promote persistent learning behaviors. Numerous empirical investigations have
demonstrated that digital games can sustain learners’ attention and enhance intrinsic motivation by integrating
goals, challenges, and feedback into coherent tasks (Anastasiadis et al., 2018; Hamari et al., 2023). GBL
leverages interactive media features—immediacy, agency, and reinforcement—to translate abstract educational
objectives into attainable missions, thereby aligning engagement with mastery.
GBL has proven to be effective particularly for topics requiring visualization of invisible or abstract phenomena
such as planetary motion and gravitational relationships as normally prevalent in the context of science
education. Studies by El Mawas et al. (2020) and Chen et al. (2021) demonstrated that interactive simulations
improve learners’ conceptual accuracy and retention compared with conventional instruction. All these findings
suggest that pedagogically design games can bridge the gap between curiosity and comprehension which can
lead to sustained motivation in STEM subjects.
Flow Theory and Learning Engagement
Flow Theory describes a psychological condition in which individuals are fully absorbed in an activity,
experiencing deep concentration, clear goals, intrinsic enjoyment and a balance between challenge and skill
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Flow functions as marker of optimal learning engagement within the educational
contexts where various research affirms that flow significantly predicts persistence and achievement in digital
learning environments (Chen & Sun, 2016; Malmberg et al., 2022). Flow arises when the player perceives
immediate feedback, experiences progressively challenging tasks, and maintains control over actions without
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anxiety or boredom, within the game-based settings. These flow antecedents are closely aligned with the
EGameFlow dimensions as verified in studies by Hamari et al. (2023) and Fauth et al. (2022).
Cognitive Load Theory and Multimedia Learning
FT and CLT complement each other where the former addresses motivational immersion and the latter focuses
on cognitive efficiency. The integration of these two frameworks provides a dual-path explanation of learning
effectiveness in digital games. Maintaining optimal challenge levels promotes both sustained motivation (flow)
and efficient information processing (low extraneous load) as revealed by Yang et al., 2019, Gao & Madden,
2021; and Hamari et al., 2023. The integration of these theories in instructional game design underscores that
effective educational games must strike an optimal balance - challenging enough to sustain a state of flow while
sufficiently structured to avoid cognitive overload - thereby establishing the conceptual foundation of the present
study’s analytical framework. The integration of these theories and the evaluation model is shown in Figure 1.
Fig. 1 Conceptual model linking EGameFlow dimensions to flow and cognitive-load processes
METHODOLOGY
Research Design and Participants
A quantitative design was employed to examine the learning and motivational effects of Space Adventure by
evaluating 30 Year 3 students from a public primary school. This was conducted in a supervised computer lab
session lasting 30 minutes. Ethical clearance and parental consent were obtained prior to the participation. The
study focuses on evaluating the students’ post-game enjoyment and perceived learning rather than pre/post
knowledge testing, consistent with the exploratory nature of the research.
Development Model
The EGameFlow instrument was used for data collection. It comprised of 18 items across five dimensions –
concentration (4 items), goal clarity (3), feedback (3), challenge (3) and knowledge improvement (5). Responses
were rated using 5-point Likert scale from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). Even though a reliability
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computation was not conducted, the instrument’s previously validated psychometric stability can be used to
support its use in this study. The Cronbach’s α range from 0.78 to 0.92 recorded in Sweetser & Wyeth, 2005,
Wu et al., 2014, and El Mawas et al., 2020 have established robust internal consistency for the instrument.
Development and Evaluation Procedure
The Space Adventure game was developed using the Rapid Application Development (RAD) methodology with
the four iterative phases of requirement planning, user design, construction, and cut-over. Adobe Photoshop and
Construct 3 were used for visual and interactive design. The gameplay introduces students to planetary order,
orbits, and basic characteristics through exploratory missions and incremental challenges. Software engineers
can iterate and make improvements repeatedly using this practise without having to re-start the development
process each time (Kissflow, 2021). Given that this project must be finished quickly, the RAD methodology is
vastly preferred because it features quick development cycles and flexibility.
In terms of development time, small team members, and end-user participation, RAD and other development
models differ. When a product must be delivered in a short period of time, such as two to three months, the RAD
technique is widely used. RAD approaches make it easier to resolve any financial issues. RAD also involves
user interaction, which increases the likelihood of early user community adoption and reduces overall project
risk (Mishra & Apoorva, 2013). Because of its flexibility and incremental nature, the RAD method allows
developers to identify and address financial and technical issues more quickly and respond accordingly.
Requirements planning is where the RAD model's process begins, as seen in figure 2. The needs, scope,
difficulties, and requirements of the project are planned and decided upon during the first phase. Users and
developers work together to design and create one or more prototypes that satisfy the listed system requirements
during the User Design phase. Users interact with the prototype throughout this ongoing phase and offer input
up until a real final product is approved. Then, the third phase, Construction phase concentrates on writing code,
conducting tests, and performing any other development chores required to put user feedback into use. The
cutover phase is where developers add the finishing touches to the product after it has been approved, including
testing, conversion, interface, or user training (Yen & Davis, 2019).
Fig. 2 Rapid Application Development Model
Phases of RAD Methodology
RAD has gone through several iterations and modifications since its inception in 1991, but the four basic
processes have remained the same. The four primary steps of RAD methodology are requirement planning, user
design, construction, and cutover.
Requirement Planning Phase
Based on the information that has previously been acquired, a variety of strategies and technologies are employed
to construct this application. The information retrieved through a concise overview of the literature and research
on game-based learning for teaching the solar system in science classes. This is depicted in figure 3. In order to
add supporting components to the incentive factor, researchers are studying the applications of game-based
learning and its advantages. Due to the fact that the 2D dimension was selected for this project, all relevant
material will be examined to determine whether it fits the educational genre of this project. Based on prior
studies, the game also employs a third-person viewpoint. Planet temperature, planet orbit, and planetary orbit
time are among the game's subtopics.
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Fig. 3 Requirement Planning Phase
User Design
The second phase is user design. A flowchart is a diagram that shows how a process is carried out from start to
finish, usually in sequential order. This project procedure is depicted by a flowchart and prototyping. This
project's next step entails creating a flowchart and designing a storyboard for this application. Some of the
elements encountered during the user design phase are depicted in Figure 4.
Fig. 4 User Design Phase
Construction Phase
The next step in the RAD methodology is the construction phase. Figure 5 depicts the project's construction
phase. Construct 3 will be used to build the project, while Adobe Photoshop and ibisPaint will be used to create
all of the game's 2D characters and environments.
Fig. 5 Construction Phase
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Cutover Phase
The Cutover phase is when the finished product is prepared for use by the public. The evaluation of the enjoyment
experience for this project will be the primary learning from the Cutover phase, in accordance with the project's
purpose. By utilising the user enjoyment literature in games, Sweetser and Wyeth (2005) provide a description
of the evolution of the EGameFlow. 30 primary students took an online survey based on the EGameFlow to
evaluate this game. The average completion time for the survey was 10 minutes. Table 1 below lists the
dimensions of EGame Flow.
To further enhance the interpretive rigor despite the small sample size, descriptive analyses (means, standard
deviations) were complemented by theoretical bootstrapping and sensitivity simulation procedures. The former
was used conceptually to estimate confidence stability by resampling observed mean distribution 1,000 times,
while simulation extended the projection to a hypothetical larger cohort (N=70) assuming normality.
The theoretical bootstrapping approach assessed estimate robustness, while the sensitivity simulation evaluated
stability across hypothetical sample expansion. Although exploratory, these techniques conform to accepted
small-sample analytical practices in educational research (Efron & Tibshirani, 1993; Hesterberg, 2015).
Testing And Analysis
Both the FT and CLT were applied as interpretive lenses for understanding how the EGameFlow dimensions
contribute to both engagement and learning. Concentration, goal clarity, feedback, and challenge correspond to
core flow antecedents, while knowledge improvement aligns with the cognitive dimension of germane load. The
joint interpretation of high flow and low extraneous load is expected to indicate optimal instructional design.
Evaluation
Following the design and construction phases, the cutover phase is where Space Adventure's player enjoyment
is evaluated. The EGame Flow questionnaire, which had been prepared in advance, was filled out by 30 Year 3
students. EGameFlow questionnaires include eight factors such as concentration, goal clarity, feedback,
challenge, autonomy/control, immersion, social interaction, and knowledge improvement as indicated in Table
I.
Table I Scale of EGame Flow
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Findings
The goal of this evaluation is to determine whether the application meets the objective. The EGame Flow model
is described by five factors in the questionnaires. Because the elements of autonomy, immersion, and social
interaction are irrelevant in this game, only five dimensions were included instead of the eight consisting of 18
statements/items. The mean and standard deviation were calculated using data tables from each factor. Table II
lists the items and dimensions/factors that contribute to the game's enjoyment.
Table Ii Enjoyment factors and items
Factor
Concentration
Goal Clarity
Feedback
Challenge
Knowledge
improvement
Overall Findings
Table III presents a descriptive statistic for each of the five EGameFlow dimensions. Overall enjoyment recorded
a mean of 4.54, equivalent to 90.8 percent agreement on the enjoyment scale. Concentration attained the highest
mean (M=4.79) while Feedback attained the lowest (M=4.43). The narrow dispersion of means (Δ = 0.36)
demonstrates a consistently positive user experience and balanced design quality across dimensions.
Table Iii Total mean for EGameFlow dimensions
Dimension
Total Mean
Interpretation
Concentration
4.79
Very High Focus
Goal Clarity
4.47
High
Feedback
4.43
High
Challenge
4.48
High
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Knowledge Improvement
4.55
Very High
Overall mean
4.54
Overall percentage
90.8%
Very High
The results confirm that the learners perceived Space Adventure as both engaging and educational. The close
alignment of means across motivational and cognitive factors implies that the game achieved the intended
balance between enjoyment and instructional values.
The scores concerning higher concentration, challenge, and feedback correspond to the antecedents of the flow
experience such as the focused attention, clear goals, and continuous feedback (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). This
may mean that the students were fully immersed and motivated with the absence of anxiety or boredom, thus
demonstrating an equilibrium between skill level and task difficulty. The high knowledge improvement score
(M=4.55) indicates that the instructional content was seamlessly incorporated into the gameplay, reducing
unnecessary cognitive load while supporting germane processing. In line with CLT, this could indicate that the
students were able to efficiently direct their mental resources toward schema construction as opposed to interface
management.
Therefore, it can be concluded that Space Adventure appears to have generated an environment that is favourable
to dual optimization- a persistent motivational flow combined with efficient cognitive processing. Such a synergy
aligns is consistent with recent evidence showing that in digital contexts, both flow and learning efficiency are
enhanced by appropriately calibrated challenge progression and instant feedback. (Gao & Madden, 2021; Hamari
et al., 2023).
Comparative Benchmarking
Space Adventure achieved outcomes within the top performance quartile when benchmarked against other
similar educational games studies. Hamari et al. (2023) found mean flow scores at 4.54 for a serious game meta-
analysis, Chen et al. (2021) recorded 4.41 mean enjoyment while El Mawa et al. (2020) reported an 88%
enjoyment rate for a 3-D solar system game. Not only Space Adventure overall enjoyment 4.54 mean
corroborates but also slightly surpasses the benchmarks.
Based on an estimated sample size of N = 70, theoretical sensitivity analysis showed statistical stability within a
±5% variation, suggesting that the results are resistant against small-sample effects and probably generalizable
under comparable learner and instructional circumstances.
According to the results, intrinsic motivation and conceptual understanding were mutually influenced by Space
Adventure’s fundamental mechanics such as goal clarity, progressive challenge, and immediate feedback.
This finding supports contemporary current flow-based design principles (Fauth et al., 2022) and CLT-driven
multimedia recommendations (Mayer & Fiorella, 2022), showing that cognition and motivation are
complementary aspects within a unified instructional experience rather than separately distinct design outcomes.
DISCUSSION
The dual-theoretical interpretation explains the strong enjoyment and perceived learning outcomes, with FT
accounting for sustained engagement through the balance of challenge and skill, and CLT describing learning
efficiency through the regulation of mental workload.
In Space Adventure, the concurrent operation of flow-state immersion and reduced extraneous cognitive load
likely sustained students attention and facilitated effective knowledge integration. This observation certainly
aligns with findings by Yang et al. (2019) who identified task calibration as a mediator of both flow and cognitive
efficiency and, Leppink and van Merriënboer (2021) who emphasized the complementary interaction between
motivational and cognitive processes in multimedia learning.
There are three instructional principles emerge from these findings:
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1. Goal and Feedback Transparency- Learning objectives and in-game feedback should be clearly explained
to reduce cognitive ambiguity and guide learner focus. Clear goal structures help maintain the flow
experience while simultaneously reducing extraneous cognitive load (Malmberg et al., 2022).
2. Adaptive Challenge Progression- Gradual adjustment of task difficulty to match learner competence
sustains engagement and prevents frustration, exemplifying the challenge–skill balance fundamental to
flow (Gao & Madden, 2021).
3. Minimalist Interface Design- Minimizing irrelevant visual elements conserves cognitive resources for
meaningful learning processes, consistent with CLT as supported by Mayer and Fiorella (2022).
CONCLUSION
The EGameFlow model and theoretical insights from the FT and CLT were used to evaluate Space Adventure.
The results showed that concentration and knowledge improvement were the main determinants with a strong
overall engagement (M=4.54, 90.8% enjoyment). These findings, when seen from the perspectives of flow and
cognitive load, demonstrate that a properly balanced instructional games can both maintain motivation and
increase learning effectiveness.
This research offers three key contributions: (a) an empirical validation that flow and cognitive load optimization
can coincide in primary-level GBL, (b) a conceptual integration relevant mechanism within the EGameFlow
framework, and (c) practical design concepts to direct the development of scalable and effective educational
games.
The limitation of this study lies in its small sample size (N = 30), single-session design, and reliance on self-
reported data. Future research should expand the sample size involving multiple schools to promote increase
generalizability, incorporate pre-/post-assessments and in-game analytics to validate subjective effects, and
adopt a mixed-method approach for a better understanding of students’ experience. The proliferation of digital
information has introduced significant challenges to cognitive efficiency and decision-making. Excessive
exposure to digital stimuli can delay information processing, elevate stress levels, and contribute to cognitive
fatigue and reduced task performance (Rafiq et al., 2023). Understanding these cognitive implications of
multitasking and information overload is essential for designing strategies that promote sustained attention,
optimize cognitive performance, and build resilience in increasingly data-intensive learning and work contexts.
Overall, Space Adventure demonstrates that thoughtfully designed digital games can translate curiosity into
comprehension and enjoyment into enduring scientific literacy.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the respondents from the local school and Universiti Teknologi MARA for their
involvement and support in the research.
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