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Intercultural Communication Competence and Cultural Elements in

Mandarin Tourism and Hospitality Textbooks for Non- Native

Speakers

Gan Kiat Chien,

Lai Yuh Ying*,

Chong Oi Leng,

Irene Yoke Chu Leong,

Chan Yann Sheng，

Kuldip Kaur Maktiar Singh,

Lai Su Yuan

1,2,6,7

Academy of Language Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malacca Branch, Alor Gajah Campus

3,4,5

Academy of Language Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malacca Branch, Bandaraya Melaka

Campus

*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000636

Received: 30 October 2025; Accepted: 05 November 2025; Published: 20 November 2025

ABSTRACT

Improved air connectivity and China’s new visa-free entry policy have significantly boosted tourism to

Malaysia, with 1,185,050 Chinese visitors recorded in 2024. According to the Malaysian Ministry of Tourism,

Arts and Culture, this figure marks a 194% rise from the previous year. This dramatic rise demonstrates

Malaysia's increasing need for tourism and hospitality workers with intercultural communication skills. For

individuals working or preparing to work in hotel management and tourism, it is necessary to grasp the cultural

distinctions between China and Malaysia, particularly the intricacies of local Chinese culture. In order to

overcome this obstacle, Chinese language training resources that take into account both cultural viewpoints are

essential. This study employs content analysis to examine the types and presence of cultural elements in two

Mandarin textbooks developed for diploma-level students in tourism and hospitality. Guided by established

frameworks of cultural elements (knowledge-based and communicative) and cultural types (source, target,

international, and intercultural interaction), the study analyses how these aspects are embedded within the

textbooks. The findings reveal a coexistence of both knowledge-based and communicative cultural content;

however, the representation of cultural and intercultural elements remains unbalanced, as both textbooks

predominantly emphasise local culture over international perspectives. These insights offer valuable reference

points for future development of Chinese language materials tailored to the tourism and hospitality industries.

In multicultural contexts, the effective integration of cultural and intercultural content is the key to enhancing

learners’ understanding of the language’s cultural background and strengthening their intercultural

communicative competence.

Keywords: Teaching Mandarin as a Foreign Language, Cultural Elements, Intercultural Communication

Competence, Tourism and Hospitality Textbooks

INTRODUCTION

Culture plays a vital role in foreign or second language (FL/L2) instruction and is no longer viewed as an

optional or supplementary element to the core language skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing

(Brown, 2000; Kramsch, 1993). Since language functions as a form of social practice, culture forms the

foundation of effective language teaching, requiring learners to develop cultural awareness to achieve true

language proficiency (Kramsch, 1993). Cultural awareness, as Baker (2011) defines it, involves a conscious

understanding of how culture influences both language learning and communication, while incorporating

cultural instruction to enrich learners’ overall language learning experience (Vernier et al., 2008). To foster

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meaningful intercultural interaction, learners need to develop what Kumaravadivelu (2008) describes as global

cultural consciousness, which enables them to engage effectively with individuals from diverse cultural

backgrounds. Consequently, language educators should carefully consider how cultural content is represented

and taught in their classrooms. Given the close connection between language and culture, developing

Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC) has become essential in ESL and EFL contexts (Gholami

Pasand & Ghasemis, 2018). Deardorff (2006) defines intercultural communicative competence (ICC) as the

ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural contexts, drawing upon one’s intercultural

knowledge, skills, and attitudes. This perspective aligns with Wiseman (2002), who highlights the importance

of motivation and understanding in facilitating intercultural communication. Since ICC is fundamentally

concerned with the comprehension and negotiation of meaning across cultures, it exerts a significant influence

on other dimensions of communicative competence, particularly linguistic competence (Brown, 1986).

Consequently, ICC is often regarded as inseparable from language proficiency itself (Mitchell & Myles, 2004).

Learners with high ICC demonstrate an awareness of cultural diversity and an ability to navigate differences

between their native and target cultures with tolerance and understanding (Byram, 1997). The intercultural

approach in foreign language education highlights the dual goal of fostering both linguistic proficiency and

Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC), promoting learners’ awareness of cultural differences that

may influence communication between their own and the target culture (Byram, 1997; Kramsch, 1993).

Cultural learning in this context extends beyond memorizing facts about a culture. It also encompasses

understanding how culture shapes communication, behavior, and identity. Scholars differentiate between

culture-specific learning, which entails acquiring knowledge and skills pertinent to a particular target culture,

and culture-general learning, which encompasses transferable abilities such as cultural adaptation and effective

cross-cultural interaction (Paige, 1997; Paige et al., 2003). Recent pedagogical perspectives advocate for

higher-order cultural learning outcomes that cultivate critical thinking and intercultural reflection rather than

static knowledge acquisition (Liddicoat, 2001). Since linguistic mastery alone does not guarantee intercultural

competence, researchers emphasize the need for explicit integration of cultural learning in foreign language

curricula (Byram, 1997; Deardorff, 2006; Jin, 2013; Kramsch, 1993). Textbooks, as central resources in

language instruction, play a vital role in shaping learners’ linguistic and intercultural development. They serve

as primary sources of both linguistic and cultural input (Ahour et al., 2014; Kobia, 2009; Nunan, 1988),

influence learners’ perceptions of the target culture, and provide structured guidance for teachers, especially in

contexts with limited real-world exposure to native speakers (Roohani & Molana, 2013). In Teaching Chinese

as a Foreign or Second Language (TCFL/TCSL), the importance of culture has been formally acknowledged.

According to Hanban’s (2014) International Curriculum for Chinese Language Education report, the

overarching goal of TCSL is to develop learners’ comprehensive language competence, which includes

linguistic knowledge, language skills, strategic competence, and cultural competence. The latter involves

cultural knowledge, cultural understanding, intercultural awareness, and international perspectives, all of

which are crucial for enabling learners to use Mandarin appropriately in authentic intercultural settings. As

Cortazzi and Jin (1999) observe, textbooks function as teachers, maps, and ideological guides that shape how

both language and culture are presented. Thus, in the context of Mandarin tourism and hospitality education,

textbooks must be designed not only to enhance linguistic proficiency but also to cultivate learners’ ICC,

ensuring their readiness to communicate effectively and appropriately across diverse cultural environments. In

light of the growing need to equip Mandarin as a Foreign Language (MFL) learners in Malaysian higher

education institutions (HEIs) with communicative competence suited to complex social environments, teaching

materials, including textbooks and modules, must be designed to integrate both cultural and intercultural

elements supported by effective pedagogical strategies. As the core instructional resource, textbooks provide

the main linguistic input and shape how teachers deliver content (Cunningsworth, 1995, 2002; Tomlinson,

1998; Wu, 2010). Over the past two decades, MFL courses have expanded rapidly across Malaysian HEIs

(Fan, 2011; Hoe, 2014; Yap, 2011), with all 20 public universities offering MFL as an elective and several

institutions providing it as a minor program (Hoe, 2014; Yap, 2011). The subject is also taught in polytechnics,

vocational colleges, and private universities, with growing enrolments among Malaysian non-native speakers,

reaching 21,693 students in one semester across public universities in 2011 (Hoe, 2014). However, challenges

remain in the cultural relevance of textbooks used. Many local HEIs rely on materials published in China

(36.8%) or adapted from Chinese and local sources (26.4%) (Hoe, 2014). Studies highlight that Chinese-

published MFL textbooks often lack systematic cultural and intercultural components (Wang, 2014; Deng,

2012; Zhou, 2004) and are designed for learners within the Chinese sociocultural context, making them less

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suitable for foreign learners in Malaysia (Wang, 2016). Locally produced MFL textbooks also tend to focus

primarily on linguistic skills, with limited integration of cultural knowledge (Tan, 2007). While Hoe (2016)

found that some institutions included cultural content related to Chinese and local festivals or integrated

cultural learning through assignments and co-curricular activities, detailed analysis of cultural and intercultural

elements in MFL textbooks remains limited. These research gaps highlight the limited research on the

inclusion of cultural and intercultural elements in locally published Mandarin as a Foreign Language (MFL)

textbooks. Hence, this study aims to address the existing gap by examining how such elements are represented

in selected textbooks and modules used in local higher education institutions through content analysis.

Previous studies have provided initial insights into the integration of cultural components in Mandarin L2

materials and have identified shortcomings in their ability to foster intercultural understanding. However, there

remains a lack of comprehensive investigation into how cultural elements reflecting the diversity of learners’

backgrounds are incorporated. This study therefore seeks to enhance understanding of how cultural

representation is conceptualized and implemented in L2 Mandarin textbooks designed for multicultural

learning environments. In particular, MFL materials developed for Malaysian learners present a valuable

context for exploring how textbook authors address the inclusion of culturally diverse perspectives and

intercultural dimensions, which are essential for developing learners’ intercultural communicative competence

in the field of tourism and hospitality.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Cultural Elements in FL/L2 Teaching and Textbooks

A number of theoretical frameworks have been proposed to examine cultural elements in foreign or second

language (FL/L2) education, among which the distinction between “Big C” and “small c” culture is

particularly influential. Originating from the works of Chastain (1988), Paige et al. (1999), Pulverness (1995),

and Tomalin and Stempleski (1993), this framework categorizes culture into two interrelated but distinct

dimensions (as cited in Dehbozorgi et al., 2014). Big C Culture, or Culture with a capital “C,” encompasses the

visible, formal, and institutional aspects of a target language community, such as literature, art, history,

geography, architecture, education, and national festivals (Lee, 2009). In contrast, “small c” culture refers to

the less tangible, everyday elements of cultural life, including values, beliefs, attitudes, social norms,

interpersonal relationships, and behavioral conventions (Lee, 2009). Together, these two dimensions provide a

holistic understanding of culture and have been central to curriculum design and intercultural training in

foreign language education in Europe and North America (Chan et al., 2018). In a related discussion, Liddicoat

(2001) distinguishes between two pedagogical perspectives, namely, the static and dynamic views of culture

which are applied in language teaching. The static view treats culture as a collection of facts, artifacts, and

national characteristics, focusing on surface-level information such as historical figures, geography, and social

institutions. Conversely, the dynamic view conceives culture as a set of evolving practices embedded within

linguistic and non-linguistic behavior, emphasizing how individuals use language in authentic cultural

contexts. Expanding on this, Risager (1991) developed a framework for analyzing cultural content in foreign

language textbooks through the micro and macro levels of culture. The micro level pertains to the sociocultural

and anthropological aspects of daily life, such as personal attitudes, emotions, values, social interactions, and

norms. Macro level, on the other hand, covers broader social, political, and historical dimensions. Risager and

later scholars (Byram, 1997; Kramsch, 1993) emphasize that effective language textbooks should integrate

intercultural issues and facilitate comparison between the target culture and the learner’s own culture. Such

comparisons, not only reduce stereotypes and potential misunderstandings, but also help learners view the

target culture as less foreign, fostering mutual understanding (Byram & Planet, 2000; Liddicoat, 2001). Within

this pedagogical paradigm, elements of “Big C” (achievement culture) and “small c” (behavior culture)

correspond closely to Risager’s macro and micro cultural levels. “Big C” culture represents the

accomplishments of civilization such as art, literature, music, architecture, and philosophy while “small c”

culture reflects everyday practices, customs, habits, dress, food, leisure, and belief systems that shape social

identity and interaction (Tomalin & Stempleski, 1993; Lussier, 2011). Collectively, these frameworks

underscore the necessity for language educators and material developers to balance both dimensions in

textbook design to cultivate learners’ intercultural awareness and communicative competence. In the field of

foreign and second language (FL/L2) education, Cortazzi and Jin (1999) systematically conceptualised how

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culture is represented in instructional materials. They identified three primary types of cultural content that can

be incorporated into textbooks: source culture, target culture, and international culture. The source culture

refers to the learners’ own culture, often aligned with the notion of national culture (Byram, 1997; Spencer-

Oatey, 2012). However, in increasingly multicultural societies such as Malaysia, the United States, Japan, and

the United Kingdom, the source culture comprises multiple cultural groups that coexist within a single nation.

The target culture, by contrast, denotes the culture of the community where the target language functions as a

first language, whereas the international culture includes references to cultures beyond both the learners’ native

and target contexts. For example, English textbooks may feature topics set in non-English-speaking countries,

reflecting English’s use as a global lingua franca. In the context of Mandarin as a Foreign Language (MFL)

learning in Malaysia, the source culture encompasses Malaysian cultural practices across its diverse ethnic

communities. The target culture, on the other hand, incorporates elements from both Malaysian-Chinese

traditions and the broader Chinese culture of mainland China while the international culture extends to cultural

information from countries other than Malaysia and China. Building upon Cortazzi and Jin’s (1999) typology,

Chao (2011) expanded the framework by introducing five categories of cultural information: source or local

culture, target culture, international culture, intercultural interaction, and universality across cultures. The

intercultural interaction category emphasizes learners’ engagement in comparing, reflecting upon, and

analyzing similarities and differences between the source, target, and international cultures through

communicative and experiential activities such as role play, case studies, and problem-solving tasks. Such

activities aim to foster learners’ intercultural knowledge, positive attitudes, and communication skills (Chao,

2011). The fifth category, universality across cultures, pertains to culturally neutral content that is not specific

to any one culture, aligning with the concept of cultural neutrality proposed by Tajeddin and Teimournezhad

(2014). For instance, a food-related dialogue in a textbook may serve communicative purposes without

explicitly representing any specific cultural context. Both frameworks by Cortazzi and Jin (1999) and Chao

(2011) provide valuable perspectives for analysing how culture is represented in language textbooks. They are

especially useful in understanding how textbooks contribute to the development of intercultural

communicative competence. Textbooks that include a variety of cultural types offer different pedagogical

benefits. Those that focus on the source culture help strengthen learners’ sense of identity and prepare them to

communicate confidently about their own cultural backgrounds. Textbooks featuring target culture content

promote learners’ understanding of the language’s sociocultural context and foster awareness of cultural

diversity. Meanwhile, textbooks that integrate international culture enhance learners’ global perspectives and

intercultural skills by encouraging them to interact across cultural boundaries (Cortazzi & Jin, 1999).

Collectively, these approaches underscore the essential role of cultural information in FL/L2 textbooks, as the

scope and balance of cultural representation significantly shape learners’ In the context of Mandarin tourism

and hospitality education for non-native speakers, the incorporation of diverse cultural elements in textbooks

becomes particularly critical. Learners in this domain not only require linguistic proficiency but also the ability

to navigate complex intercultural interactions with tourists, colleagues, and stakeholders from varied cultural

backgrounds. Applying the frameworks of Cortazzi and Jin (1999) and Chao (2011), Mandarin textbooks can

be analyzed in terms of how they present source, target, and international cultures, as well as opportunities for

intercultural interaction and universality across cultures. For Malaysian learners of Mandarin, source culture

content may include examples of communication strategies and cultural norms relevant to Malaysia’s

multiethnic society, while target culture content could reflect linguistic and sociocultural practices of Chinese-

speaking communities in China. International culture elements may introduce learners to global tourism

contexts and intercultural scenarios beyond Chinese and Malaysian cultures, helping them develop adaptable

intercultural skills. Additionally, the integration of intercultural interaction activities, such as role plays, case

studies, or problem-solving exercises, allows learners to critically compare cultures, reflect on their own

cultural assumptions, and cultivate the attitudes and skills necessary for effective intercultural communication.

Therefore, the careful design of Mandarin tourism and hospitality textbooks that balance these cultural

dimensions can significantly enhance learners’ intercultural communicative competence, preparing them to

function successfully in multicultural professional environments. Cultural content in foreign language (FL) and

Mandarin as a Foreign Language (MFL) teaching has been conceptualized from a functional perspective into

two main categories: knowledge-culture and communicative-culture (Zhang, 1990). Knowledge-culture refers

to cultural knowledge that does not directly influence the accuracy or effectiveness of communication,

encompassing aspects such as literature, art, history, geography, beliefs, and values of a particular society. In

contrast, communicative-culture encompasses linguistic and non-linguistic elements that directly affect

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communication between speakers of different cultural backgrounds. A lack of familiarity with these elements

may result in miscommunication or misunderstanding. For example, understanding the order of Chinese

surnames and given names is crucial for accurate communication, as the surname precedes the given name in

Chinese, unlike in English or Malay (Zhang, 1990; Stern, 1983). Chen (1992, 1997) further refined the concept

of communicative-culture into three dimensions: language structure, semantics, and pragmatics. Cultural

elements in language structure are reflected in the grammatical arrangement of vocabulary, phrases, and

sentences, conveying social values and cultural characteristics such as collectivism, hierarchy, and respect for

ancestors. For instance, the Chinese appellation “Lǐ xiǎojiě 李小姐” (Miss Li) places the surname first,

highlighting the cultural significance of family over the individual, a structure differing from English and

Malay norms (Ding, 2010; Shen, 2004). Cultural elements in semantics are embedded in lexis, idioms,

proverbs, and metaphors, carrying culturally specific meanings that may not have direct equivalents in other

languages. Examples include words such as “lóng 龙” (dragon), symbolizing power and success, and “xǐjiǔ 喜

酒” (wedding dinner), where the meaning is deeply rooted in Chinese traditions (Chen, 1992; Liu, 2002; Shi,

2009). Pragmatic elements of communicative-culture relate to social conventions and interpersonal behaviors,

including greetings, leave-taking, expressions of appreciation, apologies, and taboos (Chen, 1992; Shi, 2009).

For instance, casual greetings among acquaintances, such as “Shàng nǎr? 上哪儿?” (Where are you going?),

are intended to show concern rather than intrude on privacy, while expressions of modesty like “Nàlǐ nàlǐ 哪里

哪里” (there is nothing to be proud of) reflect cultural norms in responding to compliments. Similarly, gift-

giving etiquette demonstrates the influence of cultural norms on communicative practices, where initial refusal

followed by acceptance reflects politeness and respect (Liu, 2002; Ding, 2010). Overall, the integration of both

knowledge-culture and communicative-culture is essential in MFL pedagogy to foster accurate and culturally

informed language use, thereby enhancing learners’ intercultural competence and minimizing communication

breakdowns. Intercultural competence is increasingly recognized as a critical goal in foreign language (FL) and

second language (L2) teaching. Fantini (2009) defines it as a complex set of abilities required to communicate

effectively and appropriately with people who are linguistically and culturally different. Byram’s (1997) model

of intercultural communicative competence emphasizes that learners must develop knowledge, skills, attitudes,

and awareness to perform successfully in intercultural interactions. Textbooks, as key instructional materials,

play a central role in shaping learners’ intercultural competence by embedding cultural content that exposes

students to both familiar and unfamiliar cultural contexts. Scholars have proposed several frameworks for

categorizing cultural content in FL/L2 textbooks. Cortazzi and Jin (1999) identified three primary types:

source culture (SC), target culture (TC), and international culture (IC). Source culture refers to the learners’

own culture, often equated with national culture, though it may encompass multiple cultural groups within a

country (Byram, 1997; Spencer-Oatey, 2012). Target culture pertains to the culture of the country where the

target language is natively spoken, whereas international culture encompasses cultures outside the learners’

home culture or the target culture, often used in topics such as travel or global issues. For example, in the

context of Malaysian learners of Mandarin, source culture includes Malaysian society and its diverse ethnic

groups; target culture refers to Chinese culture in China and among Malaysian Chinese communities; and

international culture includes cultures from countries beyond Malaysia and China. Chao (2011) extended this

framework by including intercultural interaction (ICI) and universality across cultures (UC). ICI focuses on

comparison and reflection activities that enhance learners’ awareness of cultural similarities and differences,

while UC includes content that is culturally neutral, such as general topics like food or daily routines, which

are not tied to any specific culture. These frameworks highlight that textbooks not only transmit cultural

knowledge but also scaffold learners’ development of intercultural awareness and skills (Cortazzi & Jin, 1999;

Chao, 2011). Textbooks reflecting diverse cultural perspectives offer different benefits: source culture

reinforces learners’ identity, target culture develops awareness of other cultures, and international culture

enhances intercultural skills (Cortazzi & Jin, 1999). From a functional perspective, cultural content in MFL

and Mandarin as a Foreign Language (MFL) has been categorized into knowledge-culture and communicative-

culture (Zhang, 1990). Knowledge-culture refers to background cultural knowledge, including literature, art,

history, geography, and beliefs, which does not directly affect the accuracy of communication. In contrast,

communicative-culture comprises linguistic and non-linguistic elements that directly influence the

effectiveness and accuracy of communication. Chen (1992, 1997) further divided communicative-culture into

three dimensions: language structure, semantics, and pragmatics. Cultural elements in language structure are

reflected in vocabulary, phrase, and sentence formation, embodying social values and traditions, such as the

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precedence of the surname in Chinese appellations, e.g., “Lǐ xiǎojiě 李小姐” (Miss Li), highlighting respect

for family hierarchy (Ding, 2010; Shen, 2004). Semantic elements are evident in vocabulary, idioms, and

metaphors that carry culturally specific meanings, such as “lóng 龙” (dragon) symbolizing power, success, and

auspiciousness, or “xǐjiǔ 喜酒” (wedding dinner) representing traditional customs (Chen, 1992; Liu, 2002; Shi,

2009). Pragmatic elements involve social conventions and interpersonal behaviors, including greetings, leave-

taking, expressions of appreciation, and gift-giving, where culturally appropriate usage ensures politeness and

avoids miscommunication (Liu, 2002; Ding, 2010). The distinction between knowledge-culture and

communicative-culture aligns with broader conceptualizations of culture in FL/L2 teaching, such as the Big

‘C’ and small ‘c’ framework. Big ‘C’ culture represents visible aspects of a society, including history, arts,

festivals, and education, while small ‘c’ culture refers to hidden norms, values, beliefs, and social practices

(Chastain, 1988; Paige et al., 1999; Pulverness, 1995; Tomalin & Stempleski, 1993, as cited in Dehbozorgi et

al., 2014). Integrating these frameworks into Mandarin teaching highlights the dual role of textbooks: they

provide learners with knowledge about the world and equip them with the communicative competence

necessary for culturally appropriate interaction. By attending to both knowledge-culture and communicative-

culture, learners can navigate linguistic and social nuances effectively, minimizing misunderstandings and

fostering intercultural competence (Zhang, 1990; Chen, 1992, 1997; Chan et al., 2018). Hence, this study

aimed to investigate culture elements represented in Tourism and Hospitality Mandarin Textbooks for non-

native learners that were written by local authors in Malaysia. The research questions addressed in this study

are: (1) What cultural elements (knowledge culture or communicative culture) and types of culture (source,

target, international cultures or intercultural interaction) are presented in the selected textbooks?; (2) To what

extent are these categories of cultural elements and types of culture depicted in the textbooks?

METHODOLOGY

Content Analysis

Content analysis, a widely used research method for examining cultural representations in foreign language

(FL) textbooks, involves systematic procedures to draw meaningful inferences from textual data (Weber, 1990;

Sándorová, 2014). In this study, a qualitative approach to content analysis was adopted to explore and interpret

the cultural elements embedded in the textbooks. An analytical framework was developed by integrating

categories and types of culture drawn from previous studies. These cultural categories were then identified and

quantified through frequency and percentage analysis to reveal their distribution across the dataset. As a form

of latent content analysis, this approach emphasized deeper, interpretive insights into the meaning of texts

within their specific cultural contexts (Dörnyei, 2007). According to scholars such as DeWitt et al. (2013) and

Mayring (2000), content analysis enables researchers to systematically examine, interpret, and verify textual

data to better understand complex issues. Krippendorff (2013) further highlights its value in generating new

perspectives and informing practical applications. The current research incorporated a directed content analysis

strategy, using prior theories and research to guide the development of coding categories (Hsieh & Shannon,

2005). This method involved both qualitative interpretation and quantitative description, reflecting best

practices in content analysis which combine both approaches for more comprehensive findings (Weber, 1990;

Hsieh & Shannon, 2005).

Sample

Three Tourism and Hospitality Mandarin Textbooks were purposively sampled for this study. These two

textbooks are popular specific purpose textbooks currently use at local universities in Malaysia. Mandarin

Textbook for Tourism and Hotel Management 1华语课本旅游和酒店管理科专用（一）coded as MT1 and

Mandarin Textbook for Tourism and Hotel Management 2华语课本旅游和酒店管理科专用（二）, coded as

MT2, both were published by Xueer Publisher. Comprehensive Mandarin for Hotel and Tourism Management

1 酒店与旅游管理华语综合课本（一），coded as MT3, published by UiTM Press. The Hotel and Tourism

Management Mandarin textbooks are written for students in the tourism and hospitality fields who need to

develop Mandarin language skills relevant to customer service, hotel operations, travel services, and cross-

cultural communication within the industry. These textbooks are also suitable for professionals who need to

use in industry-specific context.

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Defining the categories

Table 1 Cultural Elements in Textbooks

Code

Sub-categories

Interpretation

Themes or examples

Knowledge

Culture (Zhang,

1990)

Big C culture (Tomalin &

Stempleski, 1993) (Kramsh,

2013).

was coded using

synonymous terms like

"classics" for literature and

"governmental bodies" for

institutions.

literature, education, institutions,

geography, history, art, and

economy

Small c culture (Byram,

1993) (Risager, 1991)

"norms" for values and

"nonverbal cues" for body

language.

everyday practices and social

norms, values, beliefs, attitudes,

everyday living, interpersonal

relations, body language, living

conditions, social conventions,

and ritual behavior

Communicative

Culture (Zhang,

1990;

i. Cultural elements in

language structure

(Chen 1992, Liu, 2002; Xia,

2013),

Cultural elements that are

embodied in the structure of

vocabulary, phrases and

sentences. (Ang, 2020)

Form of names, dates, and

times, greetings in Chinese.

(Ang, 2020)

ii. Cultural elements in

meaning (Chen, 1992; Liu,

2002; Xia, 2013).

Cultural elements that are

contained in lexis and

idioms. (Ang, 2020)

Family kinship titles in Chinese

iii. Cultural elements in

pragmatics (Chen, 1992;

Shi, 2009; Xia, 2013).

refers to the language used

in cultural protocol, social

context, custom, and

interpersonal relationships

Linguistic taboos of a particular

country

Intercultural Elements

(Byram, 1997; Paige et al.,

2003)

Exploration in target culture

and learner’s own culture

towards the development of

intercultural knowledge,

skills, attitudes and

awareness through activities

and tasks, such as

discussion on comparison of

the similarities and

differences between target

culture and learners’ own

culture, intercultural

problem-solving tasks, etc.

Comparison of the differences or

similarities between two

cultures, such as comparison on

formal greetings, non-verbal

behaviors in greetings,

appellations in greetings,

address forms, kinship titles,

Chinese name and student’s own

name, gift- giving etiquette,

family values, connotation of

numbers, traditional festivals,

cuisine, etc. Discussion or

problem solving of intercultural

issues which causes stereotypes

or misunderstanding, such as

greetings behavior between

different cultures. Interactive

tasks which involve target

culture and students’ own

culture.

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Table 2 Types of Culture in Textbooks

Categories of culture (Cortazzi

& Jin, 1999; Chao, 2011)

Description

Source Culture (SC)

It provides information about Malaysian society, including the cultures of its

various ethnic communities.

Target Culture (TC)

It pertains to both Malaysian Chinese culture and the traditional culture of

China.

International Culture (IC)

it includes all cultures except Malaysian culture and the Chinese culture of

China.

Intercultural Interaction (ICI)

It pertains to the comparison, and critical reflection on the similarities and

differences between the local (source) culture and the international (target)

culture.

Coding Procedure

Before commencing the coding process, it is essential to define the units of analysis (Cohen et al., 2007). The

content analysis procedure began with identifying these units (Cavanagh, 1997; McCain, 1988). Based on the

study’s research questions, the unit of analysis could comprise a letter, word, sentence, section of text, number

of participants in a discussion, or duration of interaction (Elo et al., 2014). In this study, words, phrases, and

sentences within dialogues and texts served as the evaluation units for Communicative-Culture. For Little c

and Big C culture elements, the entire dialogues or texts within each chapter were analyzed. Each chapter in

every textbook was treated as one analytical unit, resulting in a total of 18 units. A categorization matrix was

designed to code the data according to predefined categories (see Tables 1 and 2). All data were systematically

examined and coded to determine their correspondence with or representation of the identified categories (Polit

& Beck, 2004). For each unit of analysis, the coder assessed the presence of each category, marking it

accordingly. Descriptive statistics were then computed to capture the frequency or occurrence of each

category. Following the quantitative analysis, qualitative interpretation was conducted to explore the nature of

cultural representations, supported by specific examples from the texts.

Upon completion of the coding process, the frequency data related to cultural elements and types of culture

were exported from the software for quantitative analysis. This was subsequently followed by a qualitative

interpretation of the data, wherein specific instances of cultural representation within the textbooks were

examined and discussed in detail. The trustworthiness of a qualitative study is vital for assessing its value, and

this research adheres to Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) four key criteria: credibility, transferability, dependability,

and confirmability. Trustworthiness is reflected in the accuracy of data reporting, data collection methods,

analytical reliability, and representation of diverse realities (Elo et al., 2014). In terms of credibility, the

sample—four L2 Mandarin textbooks written by Malaysian authors for elementary learners in Malaysian

public universities—was clearly defined, with the learner population being ethnically diverse. Dependability is

ensured as the textbooks are stable, publicly available print materials, with full bibliographic details provided

to support future research. Confirmability was strengthened through the development of a categorization

matrix based on previous literature, and through a coding process conducted by the lead researcher. To verify

coding consistency, 10% of the data was re-coded by two trained postgraduate students, one of whom had

cultural familiarity, resulting in over 90% agreement. Transferability, which aligns with external validity, is

demonstrated by the study’s relevance to similar educational contexts, offering valuable insights for future

research on Mandarin for specific purpose textbooks for Malaysian or other multicultural learners.

Findings

The findings related to the two research questions are presented in this section. The two cultural dimensions

were analyzed across three Mandarin for specific purposes textbooks, designated as MT1, MT2 and MT3.

Each textbook was developed for use over the course of a single academic semester. Collectively, the

textbooks comprised 18 units, encompassing a range of thematic content, including tour agency, hotel, local

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tourist attraction sites, local foods, travel to China, airport and asking for direction. Based on the analysis of all

18 units (refer to the appendix for comprehensive evidence), the findings are summarized in Table 3. With

regard to cultural elements, knowledge-culture does not directly impact communicative accuracy between

individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds—is explicitly featured across all three textbooks (see Table 3).

This type of culture is present in nearly all units of MT1, MT2, and MT3, though its occurrence is

comparatively lower in MT2. Furthermore, Big 'C' culture emerges as the predominant focus throughout the

textbooks, whereas small 'c' culture receives limited representation. Communicative culture is also evident

across all four textbooks. Communicative culture elements related to language structure, semantics, and

pragmatics are incorporated in MT1, MT2 and MT3.

Table 3 Percentage of Cultural Elements and Types of Culture in Sampled Textbooks

Sample

Total

units

Cultural elements

Type of culture

Kc (%)

Cc(%)

(%)

ICI

(%)

Big’C’

Small’c’

Cc-i

MT 1

66.6%

(4/6)

83.33%

(5/6)

66.6%

(4/6)

100%

(6/6)

16.6%

(1/6)

50%

(3/6)

16.6%

(1/6)

MT 2

66.6%

(4/6)

(0/6)

50%

(3/6)

66.6%

(4/6)

(0/6)

66.6%

(4/6)

33.3%

(2/6)

MT 3

66.6%

(4/6)

50%

(3/6)

66.6%

(4/6)

100%

(6/6)

33.3%

(2/6)

33.3%

(2/6)

16.6%

(1/6)

Total

66.6%

(12/18)

44.4%

(8/18)

61.1%

(11/18)

88.8%

(16/18)

16.6%

(3/6)

50%

(9/18)

22.2%

(4/18)

Percentage (%) is for the the total chapters in the sampled textbooks.

In term of types of culture, source culture is the most dominant compared to target culture, international

culture and intercultural interaction, as it present in almost all 18 chapters across all three textbooks (see Table

3). It is followed by international culture, which accounts for 38.8% less than source culture. Intercultural

communication is only integrated into one to four unit in MT1, MT2 and MT3, and target culture has the most

under-represented as cannot be found in MT2. Table 4 to 6 show the analysis of categories of culture and

specific examples illustrating these categories in individual textbooks.

In MT1, source, target and international cultures are represented by elements of knowledge culture (see Table

4). For source culture, it seems that multi-racial culture is depicted, making reference to local tourist attractions

or places at different states of Malaysia such as Melaka, Kuala Lumpur, Pahang, East Coast, as well as

buildings built during colonial times and modern era, religious worship buildings of different ethnics, and local

cultural heritage. There are also elements representing the target culture, for instance the use of Chinese

characters in dialogues, the culture of Baba and Nyonya (hybrid of local Malay culture and Chinese culture).

Futhermore, International culture is represented by making reference to the tourist attractions or places in the

world modern cities for example Hong Kong and Taipei. Meanwhile in small ‘c’ culture, elements were

represented by social identities and local cuisines in source culture. Target culture was represented by local

Chinese cuisines, whereas international culture was represented in the aspect of etiquette when enquiring

information, and intercultural communication was depicted through the difference of the material used to make

Chinese leather puppet and local leather puppet.

Elements of communicative-culture that are embedded in language structure, semantics and pragmatics are

used mainly to represent the target culture in MT1, for instance, a brief description of local Chinese and China

tourist, form of Chinese names, politeness in providing service and welcoming guests expression. On the other

hand, Source culture and international culture were represented by the introduction and form of local name,

and introduction and form of western name respectively.

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Table 4 Cultural Elements and Types of Culture in MT1

Type of culture

Knowledge culture (Kc)

Communicative culture (CC)

Big ‘C’

Small ‘c’

Geography: local tourist attractions of

Penang, Kuala Lumpur, Pahang,

Melaka, East Coast, pictures of tourist

attractions. (C1)

Arts and history: The architecture of

buildings built during colonial period

and modern time. (C4&C5)

The religious worship buildings of

different ethnics. (C4)

Local cultural heritage. (C5)

-Social identities

in Malaysia(C4)

-different variety

of local

cuisine(C6)

-Description of local tourists.

-Form of local names.

-Using Chinese characters in dialogues

(C1-6)

-Culture of Baba and Nyonya (mixture

of Chinese and local Malays)(C5)

-Local Chinese

cuisine(C6)

-Introduction of local Chinese

and China tourist.

-Form of Chinese names.

- Politeness in providing

service.(C2 &C3)

- Express welcoming guests.(C1)

Geography: Hong Kong tourist

attractions, pictures of tourist attraction

sites, picture of the highest skyscraper

in Taiwan, Taipei 101, picture of China

visa. (C1)

-Etiquette when

enquiring

information.(C2

&C3)

-Introduction of Western tourist.

-Form of Western name. (C3)

ICI

-The difference of

the material used

to make Chinese

leather puppet

and local leather

puppet.(C5)

Percentage (%) is for the the total chapters in the sampled textbooks.

In MT2, target culture receives attention, with source, international, and intercultural cultures represented

through knowledge- or communicative-culture (see Table 5). Knowledge-culture is mainly Big ‘C’ elements

and found in source, target, international cultures and interculture interaction. Meanwhile Small ‘C’ element is

only found in target culture. For source culture, it seems that multi-racial culture and history of Chinese

immigrated to Malaya are also depicted through making reference to two states located in Borneo Island which

are Sabah and Sarawak with the local famous tourist attractions or places. There are also elements representing

the target culture, for instance the use of Chinese characters in dialogues and the famous places in the province

of China such as Beijing, Nanjing, Shanghai and Hangzhou. Moreover, International culture is represented by

making reference to the foreign currency exchange while travelling to overseas. Intercultural interaction is

represented by the different exchange rate of Renminbi and US Dollar which indicated he US Dollar(USD) has

long been the dominant global currency in the world, in contrast, the Chinese renminbi (CNY) has been

gradually increasing its presence in global markets. Meanwhile in small ‘c’ culture elements were represented

by the appropriate etiquette when enquiring information at the hotel counter. The elements of communicative-

culture is represented via the source culture in MT2, for instance, a brief description of local Chinese and

China tourist and form of Chinese names.

In the target culture, form of Chinese names, expression of welcoming guests and politeness in asking

direction are presented according to the chapter in the textbook. The International culture is represented by

procedure check in at the airport counter, baggage check in and security check at airport and check in at the

immigration counter of an airport in chapters respectively.

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Table 5 Cultural Elements and Types of Culture in TMC2

Type of

culture

Knowledge culture(Kc)

Communicative

culture(Cc)

Big C

Small c

Geography: local tourist attractions of East Malaysia

such as Sabah and Sarawak. (C2)

pictures of tourist attractions in East Malaysia (C2)

Historical buildings: Kuching Chinese History

Museum (C1)

-Form of local names.

- Description of local

tourists.

- Using Chinese characters in dialogues (C1-6)

-Travel to China: Tourist attraction in big cities of

China such as Shanghai, Beijing, Hangzhou and

Nanjing. (C5&C6)

Pictures of tourist attraction sites in Beijing,

Shanghai and Hangzhou. (C6)

-Etiquette when

enquiring

information.(C3

&C4)

-Form of Chinese names.

-Express welcoming

guests. (C1&C4)

-Politeness in asking

direction.(C1)

- Foreign currency exchange. (C5)

-procedure check in at the

airport counter.(C3)

-baggage check in and

security check at airport.

(C3)

-check in at the

immigration counter of an

airport. (C3)

ICI

-Different exchange rate of Renminbi and US

Dollar.(C5)

Percentage (%) is for the the total chapters in the sampled textbooks.

Finally, similar to MT1 and MT2, source and target cultures are dominant in MT3 (see Table 6). In the source

culture, elements of Big “C” culture are represented through geography, including local tourist attractions and

images of these destinations, as well as arts and history, reflected in colonial-era architecture found in states

such as Penang and Malacca. The presence of religious buildings belonging to different ethnic groups and

depictions of local cultural heritage further emphasize Malaysia’s multicultural identity. On the other hand,

Small “c” cultural elements of the source culture are portrayed through etiquette when staying in hotels, social

identities within Malaysia, and the diversity of local cuisines. In the target culture, Big “C” elements include

the use of Chinese characters in dialogues and the heritage of Baba and Nyonya culture, which combines

Malay and Chinese traditions. Meanwhile, Small “c” elements are expressed through etiquette in making

inquiries and interactions, highlighting aspects of communication and behavior within the cultural context.

Communicative culture is reflected through various linguistic and social expressions, including the use of both

local and Chinese name forms, which represent cultural identity and diversity. Additionally, politeness in

providing services highlights the importance of respectful and courteous interaction within social and

professional settings. The expression of welcoming guests further emphasizes hospitality and warmth,

showcasing cultural values related to kindness and respect in interpersonal communication.

Table 6 Cultural Elements and Types of Culture in TMC3

Type of

culture

Knowledge culture(Kc)

Communicative culture(Cc)

Big C

Small c

Geography: local tourist attractions,

pictures of tourist attractions. (C1&C4)

Arts and history: The architecture of

buildings built during colonial period

especially in Penang and Malacca state.

-Etiquette while

staying in hotel.

-Social identities

in Malaysia(C4)

-different variety

-Form of local names.

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(C4&C5)

The religious worship buildings of

different ethnics. (C4)

-Pictures of buildings. (C4)

-Local cultural heritage. (C5)

of local

cuisine(C6)

-Using Chinese characters in dialogues

(C1-6)

-Heritage of Malay and Chinese culture,

Baba and Nyonya.(C4)

-Etiquette when

enquiring

information.(C3

&C4)

-Form of Chinese names.

- Politeness in providing

service.(C2 &C3)

- Express welcoming

guests.(C1&C5)

ICI

Percentage (%) is for the the total chapters in the sampled textbooks.

DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The analysis of the three Mandarin for Specific Purposes (MSP) textbooks - MT1, MT2, and MT3 - indicates

that while cultural content is incorporated throughout the materials, the overall representation of cultural

elements lacks balance and depth. The textbooks collectively prioritize knowledge-culture, focusing primarily

on factual and descriptive aspects such as tourist attractions, historical landmarks, and local heritage. These

Big “C” or macro-cultural elements are useful for introducing learners to general information about Chinese

and Malaysian culture but do not sufficiently promote intercultural communication competence. The limited

inclusion of Small “c” culture—micro-level elements such as daily routines, customs, social interactions, and

values—suggests that learners may not gain the pragmatic and sociocultural knowledge necessary for authentic

communication in tourism and hospitality contexts. This imbalance aligns with prior studies (Kramsch, 2013;

Lussier, 2011; Tomalin & Stempleski, 1993), which emphasize the need for both macro and micro cultural

representation to achieve comprehensive intercultural learning outcomes.

Furthermore, the textbooks examined demonstrate a dominant presence of source culture, particularly

Malaysian cultural elements, while target and international cultures remain underrepresented. The emphasis on

local cultural identities and locations such as Melaka, Penang, and Kuala Lumpur reflects the national context

of textbook production but may unintentionally limit learners’ exposure to the communicative norms of the

target culture. The findings show that elements of the target culture—such as Chinese etiquette, kinship terms,

and symbolic meanings of numbers—are either superficially presented or entirely absent in some textbooks.

This imbalance may hinder learners’ ability to engage meaningfully with native speakers of Mandarin,

particularly in professional or cross-cultural service encounters. To address this, textbook developers should

integrate culturally rich topics such as dining etiquette, non-verbal behavior, values of filial piety and modesty,

and gift-giving customs to help learners internalize the social and behavioral conventions of Chinese

communication.

The study also reveals that while communicative-culture elements (Chen, 1992) such as pragmatics, politeness

strategies, and speech acts are present, they are often implicitly embedded without clear explanation or

contextual elaboration. When cultural meanings in language structure and semantics are not made explicit,

learners may overlook key cultural nuances or interpret them through the lens of their own culture, leading to

potential misunderstandings. This finding supports Byram (1997) and Deardorff (2006), who assert that culture

and intercultural elements must be explicitly addressed in the curriculum to foster awareness and prevent

stereotyping. It is therefore recommended that textbook writers include explicit notes, cultural explanations,

and reflection prompts accompanying dialogues and reading passages. Such additions would strengthen

learners’ understanding of the link between linguistic expression and cultural meaning, enhancing their

intercultural communicative competence (ICC).

In terms of intercultural representation, the analysis shows that intercultural communication is minimally

featured, appearing in only a few units across the textbooks and rarely supported by reflective or comparative

tasks. Intercultural elements such as cultural comparisons, problem-solving activities, and role-plays are

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essential to help learners develop awareness of differences and similarities between Chinese culture and their

own. Without these activities, learners risk perceiving the target culture as static or distant. Incorporating tasks

that prompt students to contrast forms of address, dining etiquette, and non-verbal behaviors between cultures

would encourage them to critically reflect on cultural diversity and develop adaptive communication strategies

(Byram, 1997; Risager, 1991; Paige et al., 2003). Interactive, scenario-based learning, particularly relevant to

the tourism and hospitality domain could further strengthen learners’ ability to manage real-world intercultural

encounters.

Moreover, the low degree of international culture representation across the textbooks highlights an additional

gap. References to other global destinations such as Hong Kong and Taipei are present but remain descriptive

rather than comparative or analytical. In today’s globalized tourism and hospitality industry, learners must

engage with international visitors from multiple cultural backgrounds, not solely local or Chinese contexts.

Including examples of intercultural communication scenarios involving Western tourists, as well as materials

on global hospitality practices, would enable learners to apply Mandarin communicatively in multicultural

settings. Such inclusion would also align textbook design with global intercultural frameworks that emphasize

knowledge, skills, attitudes, and awareness as core components of ICC (Deardorff, 2006; Liddicoat, 2001).

In light of these findings, it is recommended that future Mandarin textbook development adopt a more

balanced and systematic integration of Big “C” and Small “c” cultural elements, communicative-culture, and

intercultural components. The inclusion of explicit cultural information—such as short reading passages on

Chinese arts, festivals, and traditions—combined with practical communicative activities, would bridge

linguistic learning and intercultural understanding. Teachers also play a critical role in contextualizing cultural

elements through guided discussions and cross-cultural comparisons. Ultimately, the enhancement of

intercultural communication competence requires textbooks and instruction to move beyond linguistic

accuracy toward fostering intercultural awareness, empathy, and adaptability—skills essential for effective

communication in Mandarin within the tourism and hospitality industries.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the analysis of the three Mandarin Tourism and Hospitality textbooks (MT1, MT2, and MT3)

reveals that while cultural elements are incorporated, their representation remains imbalanced and lacks depth

in fostering Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC). The materials predominantly emphasize Big “C”

knowledge-culture and local source culture, with limited attention to Small “c” practices, target culture, and

intercultural interaction. Consequently, learners may develop linguistic skills without acquiring the

sociocultural awareness and pragmatic sensitivity needed for authentic communication in diverse contexts. To

bridge this gap, future textbook design should integrate explicit and balanced cultural content by integrating

knowledge, communicative, and intercultural elements. The addition of reflective, task-based activities can

further strengthen and support these elements. By doing so, Mandarin education for non-native speakers can

more effectively prepare learners to engage competently, appropriately, and empathetically in the multicultural

tourism and hospitality industry.

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