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The Impact of Biophilic Interior Design on Pupil Well-being in Ugandan

Primary Schools: A Convergent Mixed-Methods Study

Marete Josephine Njoki

Department of Art and Design, Maseno University, Kenya

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000653

Received: 26 October 2025; Accepted: 04 November 2025; Published: 20 November 2025

ABSTRACT

A growing body of evidence links biophilic design to enhanced well-being in educational settings. However,

this research is predominantly situated in high-income, developed countries, leaving a critical gap in

understanding its effects in resource-constrained contexts. This study examined the effects of biophilic interior

design on the emotional and social well-being of pupils in government-sponsored primary schools in Mukono

District, Uganda. A convergent mixed-methods design was employed with 302 pupils (aged 11-12) from four

purposively selected schools. Quantitative data were collected via a reliable 5-point Likert scale questionnaire

(Cronbach’s α = 0.895) measuring Emotional and Social Environment (ESE) and perceptions of four biophilic

domains: Nature in Space (NIS), Sensory Nature Stimuli (SNS), Nature of Space (NOS), and Natural

Analogues (NA). Qualitative data were gathered through 12 focus group interviews (n=4 pupils each)

incorporating diamond ranking and visual elicitation board activities. Quantitative data were analyzed using

descriptive statistics, Spearman's correlation, and multiple regression. Qualitative data were analyzed using

thematic analysis. The regression model was statistically significant, F(4,297) = 74.34, p<.001, explaining

49.4% of the variance in well-being scores (Adjusted R²=0.494). All four biophilic domains were significant

positive predictors, with NIS (β = 0.54, p<.001) and NOS (β = 0.47, p<.001) showing the strongest effects.

Qualitative findings revealed that pupils strongly associated positive emotions with elements like natural light,

views of greenery, and open, safe spaces for socializing, while expressing aversion to dark, paved, and poorly

maintained environments. Biophilic design elements are powerful, significant predictors of pupil well-being in

Ugandan primary schools. The convergence of quantitative and qualitative data provides robust, context-

specific evidence that integrating these nature-based elements can profoundly enhance the emotional and social

environment of learning spaces, offering a low-cost strategy for supporting holistic student development in

resource-constrained settings.

Keywords: Biophilic Design, Pupil Well-being, Mixed-Methods, Educational Environments, Uganda, Sub-

Saharan Africa, PERMA Framework.

INTRODUCTION

The physical environment of a school is not merely a container for learning but an active participant in the

educational process (Barrett et al., 2015). Globally, there is a shifting paradigm towards designing learning

spaces that support not only academic achievement but also the holistic well-being of students (Kanonire et al.,

2022). Within this movement, biophilic design, an approach that seeks to connect building occupants more

closely to nature, has emerged as a significant trend (Kellert et al., 2008). Rooted in the biophilia hypothesis,

which posits an innate human affinity for the natural world (Wilson, 1984), biophilic design incorporates

natural elements, materials, and forms into the built environment to improve health, well-being, and cognitive

function.

Substantial research in developed contexts has demonstrated the benefits of biophilic elements in schools.

Studies have linked access to natural light, views of vegetation, and the presence of plants to reduced stress,

Special thanks to the supervisors of my masters thesis-

Dr. Wagah Ongachi Mical and

Dr. Kiplimo Korir Geoffrey of Maseno

University, Kenya from which I drew this article.

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improved concentration, and enhanced student motivation (Browning & Determan, 2024; Li et al., 2019).

Frameworks such as Kellert’s (2018) patterns of biophilic design provide a structured way to categorize these

elements, from direct experiences of nature (Nature in Space) to spatial configurations that evoke natural

environments (Nature of Space).

However, a critical gap persists in the literature. The vast majority of this evidence comes from high-income

countries in Europe, North America, and Asia, where sustainable design standards are often formally integrated

into school infrastructure (Rolling & Gerhard, 2022). In contrast, the application and effects of biophilic design

in government-sponsored, resource-constrained schools in Sub-Saharan Africa remain almost entirely

unexplored. In Uganda, for instance, government schools often face challenges of overcrowding, poor lighting,

and inadequate ventilation (Asad, 2021), yet the potential for low-cost, nature-integrated interventions to

mitigate these issues and support pupil well-being is unknown.

Well-being, particularly in school contexts, extends beyond the absence of distress to include positive

emotions, engagement, positive relationships, and a sense of comfort and safety (Seligman, 2012). In resource-

constrained environments, where psychosocial stressors can be high, fostering school well-being is especially

crucial.

The conceptual framework guiding this study integrates principles from Environmental Psychology and

Biophilic Design Theory to hypothesize the relationships under investigation. As illustrated in Figure 1, the

framework posits that four key biophilic domains—Nature in Space (NIS), Nature of Space (NOS), Sensory

Nature Stimuli (SNS), and Natural Analogues (NA)—directly influence pupils' Emotional and Social

Environment (ESE). Critically, drawing on the core tenets of Environmental Psychology, the model also

proposes that this primary relationship is moderated by the school's social-contextual environment, including

factors such as peer relationships, teacher-student interactions, and overall school culture. This framework

allows for the examination of both the direct effects of biophilic design and the nuanced ways in which

psychosocial factors may strengthen or weaken its impact on well-being in the Ugandan context.

Figure 1: Conceptual framework developed by the author to synthesize findings from this study

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

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Therefore, this study aimed to fill this gap by examining the effects of biophilic interiors on the well-being of

pupils in government-sponsored primary schools in Mukono District, Uganda. Using a convergent mixed-

methods design, the study sought to answer the following research question: How do biophilic design elements

influence the emotional and social well-being of pupils in Ugandan government-sponsored schools? By

integrating quantitative measures of perception with rich qualitative insights from children themselves, this

research provides a nuanced understanding of how nature-connected design can support the development of

healthier, more supportive learning environments in a typically underrepresented context.

METHODS

Research Design

This study employed a convergent parallel mixed-methods design (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018), involving

the simultaneous collection of quantitative and qualitative data. The two strands were prioritized equally,

analyzed separately, and then integrated during interpretation to provide comprehensive conclusions.

Study Setting and Participants

The study was conducted in four government-sponsored primary schools in Mukono District, Uganda,

purposively selected to represent a range of contexts (rural, peri-urban, urban). Participants were Primary Six

pupils aged 11-12 years, selected for their capacity for abstract reasoning and articulation (Otto et al., 2019). A

census approach for this age group resulted in a total sample of 302 pupils (163 boys, 139 girls) (See Table 1).

Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Participants (N=302)

School

Number of Pupils (Aged 11-12)

Boys

Girls

School A

School B

110

School C

School D

103

Total

302

163

139

Data Collection

Quantitative Data: A self-report questionnaire was administered to all 302 participants. It comprised:

 Section A: Emotional and Social Environment (ESE). An 8-item scale adapted from the PERMA

framework (Seligman, 2012), rated on a 5-point Likert scale.

 Section B: Biophilic Design Perceptions. A 42-item scale measuring four domains from Kellert's (2018)

framework: Nature in Space (NIS), Sensory Nature Stimuli (SNS), Nature of Space (NOS), and Natural

Analogues (NA), also on a 5-point Likert scale. The overall questionnaire demonstrated excellent internal

consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.895).

Qualitative Data: Twelve focus group interviews (3 per school, 4 pupils each; n=48) were conducted. These

semi-structured interviews incorporated:

 Diamond Ranking: Pupils ranked 9 photographs of biophilic attributes from most to least preferred.

 Visual Elicitation Boards: Pupils created collages of their "ideal school."

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Data Analysis

 Quantitative Analysis: Data were analyzed using SPSS Version 30. Descriptive statistics, Spearman's

correlation, and multiple linear regression were used.

 Qualitative Analysis: Thematic analysis was employed following Braun and Clarke (2006).

Ethical Considerations

Ethical approval was obtained from the Maseno University School of Graduate Studies and the Uganda

Christian University Research Ethics Committee. Permission was sought from school administrators. Informed

consent was obtained from parents/guardians, and assent was obtained from all child participants. Anonymity

and confidentiality were maintained throughout the research process.

RESULTS

Quantitative Findings

Descriptive statistics indicated that the Emotional and Social Environment (ESE) was generally perceived

positively (M=4.01). Among the biophilic domains, Nature in Space (NIS) had the highest mean score

(M=3.72), while Natural Analogues (NA) had the lowest (M=3.46) (Table 2).

Table 2. Overall Mean Scores and Standard Deviations (N=302)

Variable

Number of Items

Overall Mean Score

Standard Deviation

Emotional & Social Environment (ESE)

4.01

1.23

Nature In Space (NIS)

3.72

1.48

Sensory Nature Stimuli (SNS)

3.64

1.45

Nature Of Spaces (NOS)

3.54

1.47

Natural Analogues (NA)

3.46

1.49

Spearman's correlation revealed significant positive relationships between all biophilic domains and ESE

(Table 3). A multiple regression predicting ESE from the four biophilic domains was significant, F(4, 297) =

74.34, p < .001, Adjusted R² = 0.494. All Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values were below 2.5, indicating no

concerning multicollinearity (O’Brien, 2007). All four domains were significant positive predictors, with NIS

(β = 0.54) and NOS (β = 0.47) as the strongest (Table 4) and (Figure 1)

Table 3. Spearman's Correlations between ESE and Biophilic Domains

Relationship

Spearman's ρ

P-value

ESE & NIS

0.43

< .01

ESE & NOS

0.29

< .05

ESE & SNS

0.27

< .05

ESE & NA

0.25

< .05

ESE & Overall Biophilic Exposure

0.39

< .01

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Table 4. Multiple Regression Predicting ESE from Biophilic Domains

Predictor

SE B

(Constant)

0.85

0.11

7.73

< .001

NIS

0.54

0.05

0.54

10.80

< .001

NOS

0.47

0.05

0.47

9.40

< .001

SNS

0.28

0.05

0.28

5.60

< .001

0.24

0.05

0.24

4.80

< .001

Note: Dependent Variable: ESE Score. R² = .500, Adjusted R² = .494.

The regression model confirms that biophilic design elements are, in aggregate, significant positive predictors

of pupil well-being, collectively explaining a substantial portion of its variance (Adjusted R² = 0.494).

However, this key figure itself indicates that the relationship is not purely deterministic. The fact that

approximately 50% of the variance in well-being is attributable to factors outside our model provides clear

quantitative evidence for the influence of other moderators.

These observed discrepancies challenge a simplistic application of Biophilic Design Theory and underscore a

core tenet of Environmental Psychology: the impact of the physical environment is significantly moderated by

psychosocial and contextual factors (Browning & Rigolon, 2019). A school's social climate, the quality of peer

relationships, and teacher-student interactions are powerful forces that can potentially compensate for

deficiencies in the physical environment or, conversely, mitigate the benefits of a nature-rich setting. This

indicates that while biophilic design provides a foundational support for well-being, it is not a standalone

solution and operates within a broader ecological system of the school.

The qualitative findings powerfully illuminate the 'why' behind both the strong aggregate correlation and these

nuanced variations. Pupils did not merely acknowledge the presence of plants or light; they articulated how

these elements directly fostered positive emotions

Qualitative Findings

Thematic analysis yielded five key themes:

1. Visual Connection to Nature as a Source of Joy and Calm: Views of greenery evoked happiness and

provided a mental respite.

2. Dynamic Light and Air as Foundational to Comfort: Sunlight and fresh air were highly valued for

creating a "happy" atmosphere and physical comfort.

3. Transitional and Refuge Spaces for Social Well-being: Verandas and shaded areas under trees were

crucial for psychological adjustment, relaxation, and peer bonding.

4. Natural Materials Fostering Authenticity and Ownership: A distinct preference for natural materials

(e.g., wooden desks) was linked to a sense of permanence and personal connection.

5. Aversion to the Non-Biophilic: Pupils strongly disliked dark classrooms and paved, barren

playgrounds, describing them as "sad" and "hot."

DISCUSSION

This study provides compelling, multi-faceted evidence that biophilic design is a significant contributor to

pupil well-being in Ugandan government-sponsored primary schools. The convergence of quantitative and

qualitative data offers a robust and nuanced understanding of this relationship bridging a critical gap in the

global literature on educational environments.

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The central finding is that nearly half of the variance in pupils' emotional and social well-being (49.4%) can be

predicted by their exposure to and perception of biophilic elements in their school environment. This large

effect size (Adjusted R²=0.494) is substantial for environmental psychology research and underscores the

physical environment's critical role in the psychosocial experience of learning, particularly in a resource-

constrained context. The regression model was robust, with no multicollinearity concerns, strengthening

confidence in the results.

The quantitative results establish a clear hierarchy of impact: direct experiences of nature (NIS) and the spatial

configuration of the environment (NOS) are the most powerful predictors. This aligns with global biophilic

design theory, which emphasizes the primal importance of direct nature contact and spaces that evoke feelings

of safety and prospect (Kellert, 2018; Browning et al., 2014). The strong performance of NOS is particularly

noteworthy and offers a crucial contextual insight. While studies in high-income countries might highlight

complex technological integrations of nature, our findings suggest that in Uganda, designing for "prospect"

(e.g., open views for supervision) and "refuge" (e.g., secure, shaded verandas) is a highly cost-effective

strategy. This supports and extends Mehta & Mahamood's (2022) work on the importance of transitional

spaces.

The qualitative findings powerfully illuminate the psychological mechanisms behind these numbers. Pupils'

articulations of feeling "happy," "calm," and socially connected in biophilic spaces resonate strongly with

theories of restorative environments, such as Attention Restoration Theory (ART). The visual connection to

nature (NIS) likely facilitates involuntary attention and mental fatigue recovery, while the refuge spaces (NOS)

provide opportunities for social bonding and psychological safety, key components of the PERMA well-being

framework (Seligman, 2012). The qualitative findings from this study powerfully illustrate these theoretical

mechanisms in action. For instance, pupils' frequent expressions of feeling 'calm' and 'happy' when observing

views of greenery from their classroom windows align directly with the rapid stress reduction proposed by

Stress Recovery Theory (Ulrich, 1983). Similarly, their descriptions of using shaded areas under trees during

break time 'to rest our minds' or 'to read when it is quiet' demonstrate how these natural spaces function as

restorative environments, facilitating the recovery of directed attention as described by Attention Restoration

Theory (Kaplan, 1995). Their aversion to non-biophilic elements reinforces the fundamental human need for

nature-connected environments, as predicted by the biophilia hypothesis (Wilson, 1984).

From a practical standpoint, this research offers a clear, prioritized framework for action in Uganda and similar

contexts. Prioritizing low-cost interventions that maximize Nature in Space (preserving existing trees, creating

classroom gardens) and Nature of Space (ensuring classrooms have open views, creating and maintaining

shaded verandas and seating areas) can yield significant dividends for pupil well-being. This study moves the

conversation beyond theoretical benefits to provide actionable, evidence-based guidance for creating more

nurturing learning environments where resources are scarce.

Limitations and Future Research

This study has several limitations. The cross-sectional design establishes relationship but not causality. The

sample was confined to one district in Uganda, which may limit generalizability. Future research should

employ longitudinal or experimental designs to track the causal effects of biophilic interventions on well-being

and academic outcomes and expand to a wider geographical area. Furthermore, while the regression model

identifies a strong predictive relationship, it is important to consider potential confounding variables that were

not measured in this study. Factors such as teacher quality, pedagogical approaches, home environment, and

individual pupil temperament could also influence well-being scores. Although the mixed-methods design and

the high explanatory power of the model provide confidence in the central role of the physical environment,

future studies would benefit from including these variables as covariates to paint an even more comprehensive

picture of the determinants of pupil well-being.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that biophilic design is not a luxury reserved for well-funded schools in the developed

world, but a relevant and powerful strategy for enhancing the well-being of children in resource-constrained

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environments. By showing that direct nature contact and thoughtful spatial design are the most significant

predictors of emotional and social well-being, it provides a clear, prioritized framework for action. Integrating

these principles into the design and retrofitting of Ugandan schools represents a low-cost, high-impact

opportunity to invest in the holistic development of the nation's future generations. The voices of the pupils in

this study offer a simple yet powerful conclusion: children thrive in schools that feel alive, connected to nature,

and designed for their comfort and joy.

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