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A Systematic Review of Cultural Representation in Educational
Textbooks: Issues, Gaps, and Future Research Directions
Debbie Grace Frederick Matt, Muhamad Fadzllah Zaini, Saripah Banseng
Department of Ethnic Languages, Faculty of Languages & Communication, University Pendidikan
Sultan Idris.
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000668
Received: 24 October 2025; Accepted: 29 October 2025; Published: 20 November 2025
ABSTRACT
Textbooks are essential tools in the education system, serving not only to transmit knowledge but also to shape
students’ identities, values, and worldviews. Recent research reveals that textbooks often contain ideological and
cultural biases influencing learners’ perceptions of themselves and others. This paper presents a systematic
review of 23 Scopus-indexed studies (2010–2025) on cultural representation in educational textbooks. Using the
PRISMA 2020 framework, data were thematically analysed to identify representation patterns, impacts on
identity, and research gaps concerning cultural inclusion. Findings indicate a persistent dominance of Western
cultural perspectives, with symbolic portrayals of local and global cultures, and notable gender bias reinforcing
patriarchal norms. The review highlights the need for culturally just, inclusive, and empathetic textbook design.
The outcomes contribute to a conceptual framework for advancing equitable cultural representation and guiding
future educational research toward a more inclusive global curriculum.
Keywords---Systematic review; Textbooks; Cultural representation; Student identity; Educational inclusion;
PRISMA 2020; Educational ideology
INTRODUCTION
In the context of contemporary global education, textbooks play a crucial role as the primary tool for teaching
and learning. It is not merely a teaching aid, but also serves as an ideological document that reflects the values,
culture, and worldview of the society that produces it [9],[31]. Textbooks are the primary source of knowledge
that shapes how students understand language, society, and their own identities. Therefore, every element
contained in a textbook, whether linguistic text, illustrations, or learning activities, has the potential to convey
a specific cultural message. Through content selection, language use, and visual representation, textbooks
become a mirror to the value systems accepted within a community. However, in an increasingly multicultural
world, questions arise as to how well today's textbooks fairly and sensitively reflect cultural diversity and
inclusion.
Cultural diversity is now a core element of twentyfirst-century education. UNESCO [30] emphasises that
education plays a role in shaping students who are not only knowledgeable but also empathetic, globallyminded,
and appreciative of cultural differences. However, the main challenge facing the modern education system is
how to balance the teaching of academic content with the cultivation of universal values that reject cultural bias
and social stereotypes. In many contexts, textbooks still exhibit the dominance of certain cultures, particularly
Western cultures often portrayed as models of progress, while non-Western cultures are positioned as passive,
traditional, or exotic [28],[37]. This dominance not only shapes students' thinking about other cultures but also
impacts how they evaluate themselves and their own society. Therefore, analysing cultural representations in
textbooks is becoming increasingly important to assess the extent to which teaching materials inclusively depict
social reality and human values.
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The issue of cultural bias in textbooks is not new, but its impact is becoming increasingly complex in an
interconnected global world. Students are now exposed to a variety of information sources, but textbooks still
serve as the primary reference that forms the foundation of their thinking in school. When textbook content
predominantly features the dominant culture, students indirectly develop a narrow understanding of the outside
world. This situation risks producing a generation that is less sensitive to cultural differences and more prone to
ethnocentric judgements. A study by Bettache [36] shows that colonial educational discourse is still rooted in
the textbook publishing system, where Western values are often considered universal and rational, while
nonWestern values are seen as needing improvement. This not only perpetuates global cultural power
imbalances but also hinders students' ability to develop identities rooted in reflection and intercultural empathy
[24],[4].
Besides cultural bias, gender imbalance and social stereotypes are also major concerns in textbook content
evaluation. A study by Zhao and Wotipka [34] found that character representation in science and language
textbooks still shows a dominance of male characters as the main figures, while women are often depicted in
supporting or domestic roles. This phenomenon has also been observed in the Southeast Asian context, where
patriarchal values and traditional norms still influence the narratives of educational materials [7]. The impact of
such image repetition is not merely to shape students' perceptions of gender, but also to perpetuate an imbalanced
social structure. Therefore, efforts to analyse and evaluate cultural and social representations in textbooks
become an important step in building a more progressive and gender-equitable education system.
Besides the issue of content, the question of how students and teachers interpret and use textbooks is also a
focus of recent research. In many cases, teachers use textbooks as the primary source of instruction without
analysing the ideological dimensions or cultural biases they may contain [22],[26]. Lack of training and
awareness of cultural literacy leads to teaching materials being used mechanically rather than reflectively. As a
result, the implicit messages that shape students' worldviews are never addressed or critically discussed in the
classroom. This creates an urgent need to increase reflective pedagogical awareness among teachers, while also
providing textbooks designed based on principles of inclusion and cultural equity. Textbooks should serve not
only as a linguistic resource, but also as a medium that fosters empathy, respects diversity, and strengthens
students' identities.
In the context of academic research, various approaches have been used to assess culture in textbooks, including
content analysis, critical discourse analysis, and multimodal analysis [12], [25]. However, most of these studies
are still descriptive and limited to specific contexts. The lack of a comprehensive synthesis has resulted in a
fragmented and incomplete understanding of the issue of cultural representation. Therefore, there is a need to
conduct a systematic review based on transparent methodologies such as PRISMA or Preferred Reporting Items
for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses [20]. The PRISMA approach allows for a comprehensive and
structured assessment of the literature, thereby helping researchers identify key patterns, gaps, and trends in
previous research. Through this approach, systematic reviews can build a strong empirical foundation for
understanding how culture is represented in textbooks and how it affects students.
Overall, the importance of this study stems from the need to re-evaluate the function of textbooks in the
increasingly complex and multicultural context of global education. Textbooks not only convey knowledge but
also shape students' values and identities through the way they represent the world. This study does not aim to
evaluate a specific set of textbooks, but rather to synthesise findings from various international studies to
understand existing patterns of cultural representation, their impact on students, and the challenges in developing
inclusive teaching materials. Through the systematic PRISMA approach, this study aims to strengthen the
academic discourse on the relationship between education, culture, and identity. Therefore, efforts to review
cultural representations in textbooks are crucial to ensure that educational materials used in schools not only
convey knowledge but also instill universal human values based on empathy, inclusivity, and social justice.
Despite numerous studies addressing cultural representation, theoretical alignment remains inconsistent. Few
reviews systematically connect critical cultural theories, such as Stuart Hall’s representation theory and Byram’s
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Intercultural Communicative Competence with multimodal textbook analyses. Furthermore, methodological
transparency is often lacking, especially regarding database selection, coding reliability, and thematic synthesis
procedures. This review aims to fill these theoretical and methodological gaps.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Textbooks are the primary medium in the education system, serving not only to convey knowledge but also as
a vehicle for disseminating values, ideology, and culture that shape students' thinking. However, many studies
have found that textbooks are not neutral, but rather reflect specific worldviews that are often centred on the
dominant values of a society or educational ideology [31],[9]. In the context of language teaching, particularly
English as a second language, researchers have found that Western culture is often presented as a model of
progress and rationality, while local or global cultures are only depicted peripherally [28],[37]. This
phenomenon exposes students to biassed discourse and shapes unbalanced cultural perceptions. Additionally,
cultural bias also appears in visual and linguistic forms, where male images are more often associated with
leadership, strength, and intellect, while female characters are frequently depicted in subordinate or domestic
roles [34]. Issues like these show that textbook content needs to be critically re-examined to understand how
cultural elements are shaped and presented. Based on these needs, the first objective of the study was formulated
to identify the forms and frameworks of cultural elements in textbooks, including patterns of linguistic and
visual representation that convey cultural values and meaning to students.
In the context of global learning, cultural representation in textbooks not only influences students' understanding
of language but also shapes their awareness of cultural differences and diversity. Byram [4] and Risager [22]
assert that intercultural communicative competence can only develop when students are able to evaluate and
compare various value systems through teaching materials that reflect the real world. However, the literature
indicates that many textbooks fail to balance local and international perspectives, leading students to perceive
foreign cultures as more "true" than their own [36]. This effect is more pronounced in non-Western countries,
where students are often exposed to cultural representations that do not reflect their social realities. Furthermore,
teachers as cultural mediators are still inadequately trained to assess the ideological dimensions in textbooks
[22], [26]. As a result, students passively absorb textbook content without critically reflecting on the values it
conveys. In the long run, this situation affects students' identity formation and their readiness to interact in a
multicultural society. Therefore, this study sets a second objective to analyse the impact of cultural
representation on students' awareness and identity, by assessing how exposure to cultural content in textbooks
influences their thinking, attitudes, and self-identity.
Although discussions about cultural representation in textbooks are gaining increasing attention, significant
research gaps remain in terms of theory, methodology, and the context of study implementation. Most previous
studies have assessed culture through descriptive approaches such as counting the frequency of cultural elements
or thematic categories, without exploring the ideological meanings behind content selection and arrangement
[31],[22]. Studies using critical discourse analysis and multimodal analysis are still limited, leading to an
insufficient understanding of the power and ideological dimensions hidden within texts. From a methodological
perspective, there is still insufficient use of systematic frameworks such as PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items
for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) to ensure transparency in literature selection and evaluation [20].
In addition, existing research has largely focused on developed countries such as China, Japan, and Europe,
while the contexts of Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Africa remain underexplored [7],[13]. Cultural
inclusivity is also rarely studied comprehensively, considering the elements of gender, religion, ethnicity, and
social class that interact within modern textbooks. Therefore, to fill this gap, the third objective of this study is
to assess the gaps and challenges in cultural inclusion in textbooks, focussing on the extent to which educational
materials reflect the principles of social justice, gender balance, and universal cultural diversity.
METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH
This study uses a systematic review design based on the PRISMA 2020 guidelines (Preferred Reporting Items
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for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) to ensure that the literature collection and analysis process is
conducted transparently, systematically, and reproducibly [20],[14]. This approach is highly suitable because
the main objective of this study is to evaluate and synthesise existing research findings related to cultural
representation in educational textbooks, including issues of inclusion, student identity, and gender bias in
teaching materials.
As a qualitative systematic review study, this study did not involve direct field data collection, but focused on
the critical analysis and synthesis of previous empirical studies. PRISMA 2020 is used as a reporting guideline
because it helps researchers clearly detail each stage of literature search, selection, and evaluation [27]. This
aligns with the requirements of evidence-based research, which demands transparency, replicability, and
methodological accuracy.
A.Research Design
This study is a qualitative systematic review with thematic synthesis. This approach was chosen because it
allows researchers to deeply assess cultural representation issues, not only in terms of the frequency of elements,
but also in terms of the social meanings, ideologies, and values they contain [3],[31].
This study is based on three main questions that align with the research objectives, namely:
1. How are the form and framework of cultural elements represented in textbooks?
2. What is the impact of cultural representation on students' identity and awareness?
3. What are the gaps and challenges in creating cultural inclusion in modern textbooks?
This design allows researchers to integrate findings from various fields such as language education, social
sciences, and visual communication to build a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon being studied
[33], [22].
B. Database and Search Strategies
The literature search process was conducted in the Scopus database, as it is the largest bibliographic database
containing highly indexed journals in the fields of education, linguistics, and sociology [6]. The search was
conducted between May and August 2025 to ensure the data used was up-to-date and relevant to current
developments.
The keywords used were built based on the main concepts of the study, namely textbooks, culture, and inclusion.
Keyword combinations are used with the logical operators "AND" and "OR" as follows:
(“textbook” OR “language textbook” OR “ELT material”) AND (“culture” OR “cultural representation”)
AND (“inclusivity” OR “gender bias” OR “intercultural competence”).
The search process is conducted by filtering results based on:
1. Publication year: 2010–2025
2. Publication languages: English and Malay
3. Document type: Journal article (peerreviewed)
4. Fields: Education, Linguistics, Cultural Studies, and Social Sciences
A total of 57 articles were identified from the initial search, and 23 were selected in the final screening. In
addition to Scopus, the snowballing process was also used, which involved examining the reference lists of key
articles to find other relevant studies [27].
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C. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
The article selection criteria are divided into two main categories: inclusion and exclusion, as follows:
Category
Criteria
Inclusion
1. Articles published between 2010– 2025.
2. The article examines the representation of culture, gender, or identity in textbooks.
3. Empirical studies or discourse analysis (including multimodal).
4. The full article is available online.
Exclusion
1. Conceptual study without empirical data.
2. Proceedings, book chapters, or general reviews.
3. A study of the curriculum without focussing on the content of textbooks.
4. The article is not peer-reviewed.
The selection of these criteria aims to ensure that all sources used truly contribute to a critical analysis of culture
and identity in learning materials [28], [22].
D. PRISMA 2020 Screening Process
The article selection process follows the four main phases of PRISMA as follows:
Identification Phase:
total of 57 articles were identified from the Scopus search results using the specified keywords.
Screening Phase:
The article titles and abstracts were reviewed, and 15 articles were excluded because they were not relevant to
the study's focus.
Eligibility Phase:
full reading was conducted on 42 articles. Of these, 19 articles were excluded because they only assessed
pedagogical aspects without cultural analysis.
Inclusion Phase:
Finally, 23 articles met all inclusion criteria and were included in the thematic analysis.
The PRISMA flow chart below illustrates this screening process:
Fig. 1: The PRISMA Flow Chart
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E. Data Analysis Procedure
Data analysis was conducted using thematic synthesis based on the model by Braun and Clarke [3]. The analysis
process involves six main steps: (i) familiarisation with the data, (ii) initial code generation, (iii) grouping codes
into themes, (iv) theme review, (v) theme naming, and (vi) writing a thematic synthesis.
1. The analysis was conducted using NVivo 12 software to help identify the relationship between themes
and the frequency of concepts. Three main themes emerged from this process:
2. The form and framework of cultural elements in textbooks.
3. The articles in this collection assess cultural types (source, target, and global), analytical models such as
the 4P Moran Model and Kachru's Circles, as well as visual and linguistic elements that influence
ideology [31], [22].
4. The impact of cultural representation on students.
5. This theme examines the impact of textbook content on students' intercultural awareness and identity
formation [8], [22], [34].
6. Gaps and challenges in cultural inclusion. This theme encompasses issues of gender imbalance, lack of
global benchmarks, and ethnocentric bias in learning materials [17], [36],[33].
This analytical approach allows the study not only to identify patterns of cultural representation but also to
reveal the hidden ideologies formed through discourse and images in textbooks [25].
F. Reliability, Validity, and Triangulation
To ensure accuracy and reliability, researchers implemented several data validation strategies. First, source
triangulation was used by comparing findings from various disciplines (language education, visual
communication, and sociology). Second, peer checking was conducted to assess the validity of the theme
categorisation [3].
Additionally, this study adheres to the 2020 PRISMA checklist, which requires detailed documentation of search
strategies, screening criteria, and synthesis processes [20]. In this way, inter-rater reliability can be improved,
while the risk of researcher bias can be minimised.
In a qualitative context, validity is also determined by the consistency of themes and the conceptual coherence
between studies. Previous studies examined showed recurring patterns in cultural bias, the influence of Western
ideology, and a lack of gender inclusivity. This finding was cross-referenced with existing theories such as the
Critical Cultural Awareness Model [4] and the Multimodal Discourse Analysis Framework [12] to strengthen
the interpretation of the findings.
FINDINGS
This section describes the findings of previous studies regarding the representation of cultural elements in the
textbooks examined between 2010 and 2024. These studies involve various disciplines including language
teaching, science, humanities, and social education. The analysis was conducted critically based on a synthesis
of literature in the Scopus database, which showed that textbooks are not merely neutral teaching materials, but
rather a medium of ideology and cultural hegemony that plays a significant role in shaping students' identities,
worldviews, and intercultural awareness.
These findings are organised according to three main objectives: (i) identifying the forms and frameworks of
cultural elements found in textbooks, (ii) analysing the impact of cultural representations on students' awareness
and identity, and (iii) evaluating the gaps and challenges in achieving cultural inclusion in textbooks.
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A. Objective 1: Identify the forms and frameworks of cultural elements in textbooks.
Literature Reviews show that cultural representation in textbooks is complex, multi-layered, and unbalanced.
Cultural elements are typically categorised into three main types: source culture, target culture, and international
or global culture. In the context of language teaching, particularly English as a Foreign Language (EFL/ELT),
the target culture referring to Anglo-Western cultures still dominates textbook content, while minority and global
cultures are often marginalised [18], [23].
A study by Weninger [31] found that language textbooks still exhibit ideological imbalances, where Western
values and norms are considered universal references. The multimodal discourse analysis conducted revealed
that images and text work together to maintain the existing cultural hierarchy. Similarly, a study by Tang and
Liu [28] on primary school textbooks in China showed that the cultural elements depicted emphasised external
products and practices such as food, clothing, and festivals, while internal perspectives and values like empathy,
worldview, and belief systems were still limited.
Besides the form of cultural elements, various analytical frameworks have been developed to evaluate cultural
representations in textbooks. Moran [16] introduced the 4P Model (Products, Practices, Perspectives, Persons),
which emphasises the balance between cultural products and the human values and perspectives that produce
them. However, many studies show that this model is still used in isolation without multimodal integration [25].
In the context of globalisation, Kachru [11] also introduced the Three Circles Model (Inner, Outer, Expanding
Circles), which has been used by several researchers [13], [29] to assess the extent to which textbooks depict
the diversity of English language cultures in the world. The findings indicate that textbooks from "inner circle"
countries (such as the UK and the US) tend to highlight Western culture, while "expanding circle" countries
(such as China and Indonesia) attempt to incorporate local elements but still within a Western linguistic
framework.
Critically, this shows that textbooks often serve as ideological tools, not just language resources. Biassed cultural
representations reinforce Western linguistic and epistemological hegemony in the international education
system. Contemporary studies [35],[22] emphasise the need for a new framework that is more reflective,
interdisciplinary, and considers multimodal, digital, and local narrative aspects so that culture is not merely
visually represented but also understood in terms of social and emotional meaning.
Table 2 Previous Studies Related to the Form and Framework of Cultural Elements
Researcher & Year
Study Focus
Key Findings
Weninger
(2020) [31]
Multimodal analysis in
language textbooks
Implicit ideologies and cultural
biases are still dominant
Tang &
Liu (2025) [28]
Cultural Representation in
Primary
School ELT
Textbooks
Product and practice elements are
more prominent than values and
perspectives
Lu &
Zhang
(2024) [37]
Comparison
of cultural elements in Chinese
textbooks
Local culture is symbolically
represented but not in depth
Risager
(2018) [22]
Representation of the world in
language textbooks
Western centric cultural narratives
still remain the main norm
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B. Objective 2: To analyse the impact of cultural representation on students' awareness and identity.
Findings from various studies emphasise that textbooks play a crucial role in shaping students' identities and
intercultural awareness. Textbooks that present cultural diversity in a balanced way have the potential to develop
intercultural communicative competence (ICC) and strengthen students' global identities [5], [19]. Conversely,
if the content is laden with stereotypes, it risks forming narrow perceptions and ethnocentric attitudes towards
other cultures.
The study by Franklin et al. [8] was among the earliest to emphasise the importance of culturally responsive
teaching strategies, where students' identities and backgrounds are recognised as part of the learning process.
Findings show increased motivation, empathy, and academic achievement when students see themselves
positively represented in learning materials. In the current context, Peng and Xiong [22] found that teachers play
a crucial role as "cultural mediators" in interpreting textbook content. However, many teachers still lack the
training to assess the implicit cultural values in the teaching materials they use.
Another critical issue identified is gender stereotypes and social roles in textbooks. A study by Zhao and Wotipka
[34] found that science textbooks in China still portray men as the main figures in scientific activities, while
women are often depicted in passive or domestic roles. This pattern has also been observed in various other
countries [7], [10], indicating that despite the increasing modernisation of the education world, gender bias
remains deeply rooted in formal teaching materials.
Additionally, teacher involvement through Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) has also been proven to
have a positive impact on the integration of cultural awareness in teaching [26]. PLCs not only enhance teachers'
understanding of cultural diversity but also transform the way they evaluate and adapt textbooks to the local
context. This shows that the impact of cultural representation is not unilateral; rather, it depends on the
interaction between textbooks, teachers, and students' socio-cultural context.
From an educational psychology perspective, textbooks that positively portray cultural identity can boost
students' self-esteem and sense of belonging, particularly in the context of minority students or students in
multiethnic schools [2],[32]. Conversely, a lack of representation of one's own culture can lead to feelings of
isolation and reduced learning motivation. Therefore, the issue of cultural representation is not merely an
aesthetic matter, but also touches upon aspects of emotional well-being and social justice in education.
Table 3 Previous Studies Related to The Impact of Cultural Representation on Students
Researcher & Year
Study Focus
Findings
Recommendations
Franklin et al.
(1996) [8]
Cultural Identity in
Reading
Instruction
Cultural Responsive Strategies
Increase Student Motivation and
Achievement
Teachers need to be trained in
culturally responsive
pedagogy
Zhao &
Wotipka
(2025) [34]
Gender analysis in
Chinese science
textbooks
Males are more dominant
in scientific images, women are
underrepresented
The visual design needs to be
more balanced and reflective
Peng &
Xiong (2022)
[22]
Cultural values in
business textbooks
Teachers are important in
interpreting implicit cultural
values
Cultural awareness training
for educators needs to be
strengthened
Smith
(2023) [26]
PLC in culturally
responsive teaching
PLC increases teachers'
awareness and confidence
regarding cultural diversity
Applied in teacher training
and the education curriculum
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C. Objective 3: Assess gaps and challenges in cultural inclusion in textbooks.
Literature Reviews indicate that cultural inclusion gaps remain a major issue in the development and use of
textbooks worldwide. Although there is increasing awareness of cultural diversity, there is still no uniform global
benchmark for assessing the level of inclusion in textbooks [17]. This deficiency leads to varying cultural
representations across countries and publishers, depending on their respective educational policies and national
ideologies.
A systematic review study by Zhang et al. [33] of literature from 2012–2022 found that many textbooks still
implicitly and superficially depict culture. Cultural representations are often presented as facts, rather than as a
space for critical reflection or crosscultural comparison. In this context, students are trained to recognise other
cultures but not necessarily to understand the values, thought systems, and life experiences behind them.
In terms of gender and ethnicity, Fithriani's [7] findings indicate that women are still underrepresented in lower-
level English textbooks, while men are more often depicted as active and competitive. Bettache [36] also found
that psychology textbooks in the West feature a dominance of white-skinned individuals and rarely depict ethnic
diversity. This phenomenon indirectly contributes to cultural alienation for non-Western students using the
material.
Additionally, editorial and commercial aspects also play a role in maintaining this gap. Publishers often filter or
select content that is considered suitable for market demands and national ideology. As a result, sensitive issues
such as discrimination, colonial history, or cultural conflicts are rarely included because of concerns about
causing controversy. This causes textbooks to lose their critical value as a medium for social reflection.
From a disciplinary perspective, the study shows significant differences between science textbooks and
humanities textbooks [1], [38]. Science books tend to emphasise an objective and positivistic approach with few
cultural elements, whereas humanities books are more open in introducing values such as patriotism, empathy,
and gender justice. This ravine highlights the need for interdisciplinary integration – for example, incorporating
humanities perspectives into science teaching so that students can understand that science is also rooted in values
and social context.
Overall, the main challenges of cultural inclusion in textbooks encompass three key dimensions:
1. Epistemological dimension – dominance of Western narratives and marginalisation of local cultures.
2. Representation dimension – visual and linguistic limitations that are still stereotypical.
3. Pedagogical dimension – lack of guidance and training for teachers to assess and adapt teaching materials
with cultural sensitivity.
Therefore, some researchers [35] ,[15] proposed the development of a global model for assessing cultural
inclusivity, which not only measures explicit content but also evaluates the implied meanings and ideologies
conveyed. This model is recommended to involve various parties – including teachers, students, and publishers
– to ensure that cultural representation in textbooks is truly fair, reflective, and based on crosscultural empathy.
Table 4 Previous Studies Related to Cultural Inclusion Gaps and Challenges
Researc her & Year
Study Focus
Identified Issues
Recommendations
Mostafaei &
Parsazadeh (2020)
[17]
Synergistic ELT
Culture
Model
There is no global
benchmark for assessing
cultural inclusion
Build an international standard
model
Zhang and colleagues
(2024) [33]
Systematic review
study 2012–2022
Implicit and inconsistent
cultural representation
Use an interdisciplinary and
intersectional approach
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Fithriani
(2022)
[7]
Gender
analysis in
ELT
textbooks
Women
are underrepresented and
gender stereotypes are still
strong.
Visual and narrative review is
required.
Bettache
(2025)
[36]
Representation of
groups in
psychology books
White individual
dominance in learning
materials.
A multiethnic
approach is recommended
in material design.
The study findings indicate that despite efforts to improve cultural inclusion in textbooks, systemic and
ideological biases remain deeply rooted in publishing and teaching practices. Biassed cultural representation not
only diminishes the educational potential to shape empathetic global citizens but also reinforces existing cultural
and linguistic stratification.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
This discussion critically examines the implications of the study's findings for education, particularly the role
of textbooks as a medium for cultural representation. The analysis results show that textbooks are not merely
tools for conveying linguistic knowledge but also ideological instruments that function to shape students'
worldviews, identities, and social values [31] , [22]. This finding proves that the selection of cultural content in
textbooks is often influenced by epistemic power and national policies that maintain certain cultural hegemonies
[35].
LITERATURE Reviews show two main paradigms in cultural representation theory. The first paradigm is the
assimilative approach, which emphasises the target culture as the primary model for students to emulate, while
the second paradigm is the pluralistic and critical approach, which demands that cultural diversity be recognised
and represented in a balanced manner [28] , [29]. However, recent studies have found that textbooks are still
dominated by Western narratives that portray local cultures as mere supplements [37], [13]. These findings
highlight the urgent need to develop a more reflective and equitable theoretical framework for evaluating cultural
representations in educational materials [33].
Besides the linguistic dimension, a multimodal analysis approach is becoming increasingly important in
understanding how cultural ideologies are conveyed visually, symbolically, and through graphic design [31].
This approach allows researchers to delve into the layers of meaning hidden behind texts and images, and
subsequently assess how students cognitively and emotionally interpret cultural meaning [25]. This is also
related to new challenges in the digital era, where electronic and interactive textbooks add a new dimension to
cultural representation [21].
The role of cultural representation in shaping student identity was also a major focus of discussion. Previous
studies have shown that students who see their culture positively represented in textbooks tend to develop a
sense of pride in their own identity and appreciate cultural diversity [8], [2]. Conversely, students who are not
fairly represented will feel marginalised and lose motivation in their learning [32]. A study by Peng and Xiong
[22] also showed that teachers act as cultural mediators, helping students interpret cultural meaning within their
respective social contexts. This confirms that the impact of cultural representation in textbooks depends not only
on the content, but also on the teacher's ability to connect it to students' experiences [26].
In terms of gender equality, the findings indicate that significant bias still exists in the content of textbooks. A
study by Zhao and Wotipka [34] found that men are more dominant in images related to science and technology,
while women are often depicted in passive roles. A similar phenomenon was also reported by Fithriani [7] in an
analysis of English textbooks in Southeast Asia, where gender stereotypes continue to recur despite
improvement efforts. This issue highlights the need for a systematic review process of learning materials to
ensure the principle of gender equality is truly implemented [10].
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The roles of teachers and professional learning communities also receive significant attention in shaping cultural
awareness in schools. A study by Smith [26] confirms that professional learning communities (PLCs) can
enhance teachers' ability to critically evaluate teaching materials and empathise with students from diverse
backgrounds. Teachers are not merely disseminators of knowledge, but also cultural guides who interpret the
hidden messages within textbooks [22]. Therefore, teacher training needs to emphasise reflective skills and
cultural literacy to ensure content is taught in an inclusive manner [8].
From a fundamental educational perspective, the study findings indicate the need for a standardised system to
assess the level of cultural inclusion in textbooks [17]. At this time, each country still uses different evaluation
criteria, depending on national policies and ideologies. The lack of global benchmarks often leads to cultural
inclusion being assessed subjectively and inconsistently [33]. In this context, a global cultural assessment
framework needs to be developed to evaluate the balance between local and international cultures, as well as
gender and ethnic representation [15].
Besides the basic aspects, commercial and editorial factors also impact the level of cultural inclusion in learning
materials. Publishers often filter out sensitive issues such as discrimination or the history of colonialism to avoid
controversy, even though these issues are important for building critical awareness among students [36].
Therefore, publishers and policymakers should view textbooks not just as economic products, but as spaces for
social dialogue that can foster empathy and understanding between cultures.
From an epistemological perspective, the study of culture in textbooks needs to evolve from descriptive analysis
to reflective analysis and social transformation. New research approaches such as classroom ethnography and
action research can help understand how students interact with cultural materials in real-world contexts [1], [38].
This method allows researchers to evaluate not only what is contained in textbooks, but also how they are used,
interpreted, and modified in daily teaching practice.
Overall, these findings emphasise that the relationship between textbooks and culture is complex and dynamic.
A good textbook has the potential to be a bridge between communities, while a biassed textbook can be a tool
for maintaining ideology. Therefore, educational reform needs to be carried out comprehensively through three
main strategies. First, developing a global assessment framework capable of objectively evaluating cultural
inclusion [17],[33].
In conclusion, efforts to strengthen cultural inclusion in textbooks require a paradigm shift in curriculum design,
publishing, and pedagogy. Textbooks should not be seen as static documents, but as living discourses that
shape awareness, values, and relationships between people. By combining critical approaches, technology, and
stakeholder collaboration, education can serve as a cultural bridge that unites global communities based on
empathy, justice, and mutual respect [35], [31].
Future research should explore cultural inclusion through longitudinal textbook studies, digital multimodal
analyses, and participatory approaches involving teachers and students. Such directions will bridge the gap
between policy, publishing, and classroom realities.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to express our appreciation to Sultan Idris Education University, Malaysia Education Ministry.
This research has been conducted based on the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (grant numbers:
FRGS/1/2022/SSO09/UPSI/03/1) that was granted by the Ministry of Higher Education.
teachers to build cultural competence and awareness of student diversity [26], [8]. Third, the application of
technological innovation and multimodal approaches that allow culture to be presented more interactively and
Second, continuous professional development for empathetically [21].
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A. Theoretical Integration
The identified themes correspond strongly with Critical Cultural Awareness [4] and Multimodal Discourse
Analysis [12]. Western-centric visual and linguistic codes reinforce Hall’s [4] concept of representational power,
suggesting textbooks act as ideological agents shaping identity and inclusion.
B. Limitations and Recommendations
The review’s reliance on Scopus-indexed literature may exclude regionally published studies, limiting the
cultural scope of findings. Future research should include grey literature and local-language publications to
capture diverse educational contexts. Mixedmethods and classroom ethnography are also recommended to link
representational analysis with lived classroom experiences.
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