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The Morality of Distributive Justice: A Christian Call for

Government Support to Faith-Based Universities in Malawi and

Zambia

Frank Barden Chirwa

, Christopher Kabwe Mukuka

PhD, Adjunct Lecturer, Mzuzu University, Mzuzu, Malawi.

PhD Student at Adeventist University of Africa, Nairobi, Kenya, works as a Lecturer-Rusangu

University, Monze, Zambia.

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000692

Received: 05 November 2025; Accepted: 11 November 2025; Published: 21 November 2025

ABSTRACT

This paper explores the moral and theological imperative of distributive justice as a basis for equitable

government support to faith-based universities in Malawi and Zambia. Despite their significant contributions

to national development, private religious institutions-including Seventh-day Adventist (SDA), Reformed

Church of Zambia (RCZ), Church of Central African Presbyterian (CCAP), Baptist, Catholic, and Islamic

universities, remain largely excluded from government financial assistance, even though their students, faculty,

and guardians contribute taxes that sustain public systems. Drawing on John Rawls’s theory of distributive

justice and Christian ethical principles, the study contends that government support for non-profit faith-based

higher education is both a moral obligation and a recognition of human rights. Empirical evidence from

Malawi and Zambia indicates that these institutions consistently produce highly employable graduates and

complement government efforts in expanding access to quality education. The paper argues that equitable

resource allocation would not only enhance sustainability across all higher education institutions but also

promote justice, fairness, and the common good as enshrined in the constitutions of both countries. The

findings carry particular implications for SDA and other faith-based universities, highlighting their

indispensable role in shaping ethical, skilled, and socially responsible citizens. This study combines

theological ethics and moral philosophy with emerging empirical data-such as enrollment patterns, funding

disparities, and graduate employability-to substantiate its argument. It draws upon Rawlsian fairness, Christian

ethics, and African communitarian principles to propose an inclusive distributive justice framework for higher

education policy reform. (NCHE, 2023; Ministry of Education, 2022). It draws upon Rawlsian fairness (Rawls,

1971), Christian ethics (Tillich, 1954), and African communitarian principles such as Ubuntu (Mbiti, 1969;

Shutte, 2001) to propose an inclusive distributive justice framework for higher education policy reform.

Keywords: distributive justice, higher education, faith-based universities, Christian ethics, Malawi, Zambia,

Seventh-day Adventist, government policy

INTRODUCTION

Education is a fundamental human right and a critical instrument for national development, social

transformation, and moral formation. Both Malawi and Zambia recognize education as a cornerstone for

advancing social equity, economic growth, and sustainable progress. Public universities in these nations,

however, frequently face persistent challenges lik-financial instability, recurrent strikes, limited infrastructure,

and constrained resources-that compromise educational quality and continuity.

In recent decades, faith-based and private universities-including Adventist, Reformed, Catholic, Presbyterian,

and Baptist institutions-have emerged as vital partners in delivering quality higher education. They contribute

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significantly to human capital development, moral formation, and social stability, often complementing public

efforts through programs in health, education, business, and theology. Despite their contributions, these

institutions receive minimal or no government financial support, relying heavily on tuition fees, church

resources, and charitable donations to sustain operations.

This situation raises pressing ethical and policy questions about fairness, inclusivity, and justice in educational

funding. Governments benefit from taxes paid by these universities, their staff, and students, yet the

institutions and learners themselves remain excluded from national funding mechanisms. Such structural

imbalances challenge the spirit of equity, shared responsibility, and moral stewardship enshrined in the

constitutions of both Malawi and Zambia. Addressing these disparities requires a re-examination of higher

education financing through the lens of distributive justice and Christian social ethics, which affirm that

equitable access to public resources is both a human right and a moral obligation.

Problem Statement

Despite their proven role in national development, faith-based universities in Malawi and Zambia remain

excluded from government financial support frameworks, such as Malawi’s National Education Budget and

Zambia’s Higher Education Loans and Scholarships Board (HELSB). These non-profit institutions serve the

same public interest as state universities by providing accredited education, producing employable graduates,

and fostering ethical leadership-yet operate without the fiscal backing extended to their public counterparts.

This exclusion creates systemic inequities that limit access for students from low-income families, weaken

institutional sustainability, and contradict the principles of fairness, human rights, and distributive justice

upheld in national constitutions and global commitments like Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4). The

central problem, therefore, is a moral and structural imbalance in higher education policy: the state’s failure to

equitably allocate public resources among all institutions contributing to the common good. Without corrective

reform, this disparity threatens to undermine inclusive growth, weaken educational quality, and erode the

moral mission of higher learning in both nations.

Research Purpose and Objectives

The purpose of this research is to scrutinize the moral, ethical, and theological underpinnings of distributive

justice as a framework for fostering equitable governmental collaboration with faith-based universities in

Malawi and Zambia. By synthesizing principles of justice, Christian ethics, and empirical evidence, the study

aspires to furnish a comprehensive rationale for incorporating non-profit faith-based institutions into national

higher education support mechanisms.

Specifically, the study endeavors to:

 Examine the concept of distributive justice as articulated by John Rawls and evaluate its applicability to

higher education policy in Malawi and Zambia.

 Analyze the prevailing government policies concerning funding and support for public versus private

faith-based universities, identifying structural inequities and deficiencies in implementation.

 Evaluate the moral and Christian ethical dimensions of state responsibility toward non-profit religious

institutions, accentuating the obligations of fairness, stewardship, and human dignity.

 Assess the economic and social ramifications of excluding faith-based universities from governmental

financial support, including effects on student access, institutional sustainability, and national

development.

 Present empirical evidence illustrating the contribution of faith-based universities to national human

capital development, graduate employability, and the moral formation of students.

 Examine comparative models from other nations where governmental collaboration with faith-based

institutions has successfully enhanced access, equity, and educational outcomes.

 Recommend strategic actions and policy frameworks for executing equitable resource distribution to all

accredited higher learning institutions, ensuring that governmental support embodies principles of justice,

fairness, and the common good.

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 Provide a theological and ethical justification for integrating faith-based universities into national

education planning, underscoring the alignment of such support with constitutional values, social equity,

and moral responsibility.

By addressing these objectives, the study aspires to bridge the divide between moral theory, ethical obligations,

and pragmatic policy implementation, ultimately promoting a more inclusive, equitable, and sustainable higher

education system in Malawi and Zambia.

Theoretical Framework: The Ethics of Distributive Justice

John Rawls (1971) conceptualized distributive justice as fairness in the allocation of social goods, emphasizing

that the structure of society should enable equitable opportunities for all citizens. Rawls proposed two

foundational principles: the principle of equal liberty, which guarantees fundamental rights and freedoms to

every individual, and the difference principle, which permits social and economic inequalities only when they

benefit the least advantaged members of society. Applied to public policy, these principles require

governments to design institutional arrangements that promote fairness, reduce structural inequities, and ensure

that marginalized groups have meaningful access to social goods. While Rawls provides a foundational

framework for fairness, complementary perspectives offer additional insights into distributive justice.

Utilitarian thinkers such as John Stuart Mill emphasize maximizing collective welfare, suggesting that

government support to faith-based universities enhances societal good by broadening access and improving

graduate outcomes. African communitarian ethics-rooted in the Ubuntu philosophy of 'I am because we are'-

extends this discourse by prioritizing communal responsibility, moral solidarity, and shared prosperity.

Together, these frameworks complement Christian moral reasoning by situating justice not only as fairness but

as mutual flourishing within society (Rawls, 1971). Utilitarian thinkers such as John Stuart Mill emphasize

maximizing collective welfare (Mill, 1863/1998), suggesting that government support to faith-based

universities enhances societal good by broadening access and improving graduate outcomes. African

communitarian ethics-rooted in the Ubuntu philosophy of 'I am because we are' (Mbiti, 1969; Shutte, 2001)-

extends this discourse by prioritizing communal responsibility, moral solidarity, and shared prosperity.

When applied to higher education, the ethics of distributive justice imply that all institutions contributing to the

public good-whether state-owned or private faith-based-should have equitable access to government resources.

The persistent exclusion of non-profit religious universities in Malawi and Zambia from state financial support

contradicts Rawls’s difference principle. Such exclusion undermines opportunities for students from lower-

income backgrounds, limits institutional sustainability, and disproportionately benefits public universities,

which already enjoy government funding. By failing to support faith-based universities, governments miss the

opportunity to maximize societal benefits through a broader, more inclusive distribution of educational

resources.

From a Christian moral perspective, distributive justice is not merely a civic ideal but a divine imperative.

Scripture consistently emphasizes impartiality, equity, and the moral obligation to protect and support the

vulnerable. Micah 6:8 instructs believers to “do justice, love mercy, and walk humbly with God,” highlighting

that justice is inseparable from ethical and spiritual responsibility. As Tillich (1954) asserts, justice is “love

distributed in social relationships,” suggesting that equitable treatment in societal institutions reflects divine

moral order. Consequently, government policies that exclude religious universities from funding violate both

moral equity and theological principles. Such exclusion undermines the broader mission of education to

cultivate not only intellectual competence but also moral and civic responsibility among students.

In the context of Malawi and Zambia, faith-based universities-such as Rusangu University, Justo Mwale

University, Central Africa Baptist University, DMI-St Eugene University, Malawi Adventist University, and

the Catholic University of Malawi and Zambia-demonstrate moral stewardship, academic excellence, and

social impact that complement public institutions. From a distributive justice perspective, equitable

government support would ensure that these universities can sustain their programs, expand access to higher

education for disadvantaged students, and contribute meaningfully to national development. Integrating John

Rawls theory with Christian ethics provides a dual lens for understanding why moral, theological, and civic

obligations converge in support of faith-based higher education.

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Human Rights, Equality, and Educational Justice

Both the Malawian Constitution (1994) and the Zambian Constitution (2016) recognize education as a

fundamental human right, emphasizing the state’s responsibility to promote equitable access and lifelong

learning for all citizens. These national commitments are reinforced by international legal instruments,

including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), which asserts the right to education without

discrimination, and the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (1981), which underscores the

obligation of states to ensure accessible and quality education for their populations.

Despite these provisions, access to affordable higher education in Malawi and Zambia remains largely limited

to public universities, leaving faith-based institutions marginalized. This selective distribution of educational

benefits creates a structural inequity that disproportionately affects students from low-income families and

undermines the broader societal goal of inclusive development. By excluding faith-based universities from

financial support, governments inadvertently restrict educational opportunities, despite the fact that these

institutions serve the public, comply with national accreditation standards, and contribute taxes to the state.

The ethical dilemma arises when the state, as the primary custodian of justice, prioritizes political or

administrative interests over moral and legal obligations. Hittinger (1992) argues that such actions produce

“rights conflicts,” where the formal recognition of rights fails to translate into meaningful access or equitable

outcomes, thereby undermining the common good. In this context, government support for faith-based

universities should not be framed as charity or discretionary benevolence; rather, it constitutes restorative

justice-a corrective measure to redress structural imbalances in educational access, ensure fairness, and uphold

the human rights of all citizens.

Moreover, equitable funding of faith-based universities aligns with principles of social justice and

constitutional equity, promoting an inclusive higher education sector that recognizes the contributions of all

stakeholders. It affirms that moral and legal responsibilities converge in the governance of education,

highlighting that sustainable national development requires both institutional diversity and fairness in resource

allocation. By addressing this imbalance, governments can advance human dignity, strengthen the rule of law,

and foster an education system that truly reflects the ethical and constitutional commitments of Malawi and

Zambia.

Christian Principles of Subsidiarity and Sphere Sovereignty

The principle of subsidiarity, deeply rooted in Catholic social teaching, holds that higher authorities should

intervene only when lower-level entities-such as families, communities, or institutions-cannot effectively

address issues on their own. According to Messner (1945), subsidiarity is not merely a political principle but a

moral guideline that emphasizes empowerment over control, supporting local entities to achieve their goals

while respecting their autonomy. In practice, this principle implies that governments should facilitate, rather

than hinder, the functioning of lower-level institutions, including faith-based universities.

Complementing subsidiarity, Abraham Kuyper’s (1956) principle of sphere sovereignty asserts that societal

institutions-such as the church, the state, schools, and the family-operate within God-given spheres of authority

and responsibility. Each sphere has a distinct mandate and must be respected by others to maintain order and

justice in society. The state, therefore, should not absorb or dominate the functions of other societal institutions

but should collaborate in ways that enhance their capacity to serve the common good.

Applying these principles to higher education in Malawi and Zambia, the state has a moral and ethical

obligation to support faith-based universities without infringing upon their autonomy. Support can take the

form of infrastructure grants, targeted student loans, research funding, tax incentives, or collaborative

programs that enhance institutional capacity. Such measures empower religious universities to fulfill their

educational and moral mission while complementing government objectives in expanding access, improving

quality, and producing skilled graduates.

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This approach aligns with the broader Christian ethic of stewardship, which emphasizes using resources

responsibly to serve society, protect human dignity, and promote social justice. By respecting the autonomy of

faith-based universities and providing targeted support, governments can foster a partnership model in higher

education-one that balances institutional independence with public accountability and contributes to

sustainable national development.

Contextual Analysis: Zambia and Malawi

The Zambian Context

Zambia’s higher-education landscape continues to be dominated by public universities-such as the University

of Zambia (UNZA), Copperbelt University (CBU), and Mulungushi University-which depend heavily on

government subventions for operations, infrastructure, and student welfare. Data from the Higher Education

Authority (HEA, 2024) show that in 2022 more than 21,000 students graduated from public and private

universities combined, yet over 85 percent of government tertiary-education funding was directed to the three

major public universities. Reliance on state financing has produced periodic fiscal crises, delayed academic

calendars, and labour unrest that compromise educational quality and continuity (HEA, 2024; Ministry of

Education, 2022).

Faith-based universities: Rusangu University, Justo Mwale University, Central Africa Baptist University, and

DMI-St. Eugene University-meet accreditation standards and contribute measurably to Zambia’s human-

capital formation. Collectively they have produced tens of thousands of graduates in education, business,

health, and ministry. Rusangu University alone has awarded more than 7,000 degrees since 2009 (Rusangu

University, 2023). Yet these institutions remain excluded from state funding mechanisms such as the Higher

Education Loans and Scholarships Board (HELSB), whose resources largely serve students enrolled in public

universities (HELSB, 2022).

The fiscal asymmetry is further evidenced by data from the Zambia Revenue Authority (ZRA, 2022): private

and faith-based educational institutions contribute taxes through PAYE and corporate levies but receive no

proportional benefits from national budgets. Consequently, a policy gap persists between government’s stated

commitment to inclusive, quality education—as set forth in Zambia’s Vision 2030-and its practice of narrowly

targeted higher-education financing (Government of Zambia, 2011; HEA, 2024). The outcome is a

distributive-justice deficit: students from low-income families attending faith-based universities have limited

access to scholarships or loans, reinforcing socio-economic inequality.

Empirically, Zambia’s higher-education system demonstrates both social value and structural exclusion. Public

institutions absorb the majority of state resources but face chronic inefficiencies, while accredited faith-based

providers deliver high employability outcomes and moral leadership training without fiscal support.

Integrating these institutions into financing frameworks could enhance national equity, expand access, and

advance Vision 2030’s goal of inclusive human-capital development.

The Malawian Context

Malawi exhibits similar structural disparities but within a smaller, highly centralized education-financing

regime. According to the National Council for Higher Education (NCHE, 2023), public universities-including

the University of Malawi (UNIMA) and the Malawi University of Science and Technology (MUST)-depend

on state subventions that constitute more than 50 percent of their annual operating budgets. Recurrent

underfunding has led to strikes, staff shortages, and deferred academic calendars (Government of Malawi,

2020).

Conversely, faith-based universities such as Malawi Adventist University (MAU) and the Catholic University

of Malawi (CUM) maintain stable operations and deliver consistent graduate outcomes. NCHE (2023) data

show that religious universities account for roughly 30 percent of Malawi’s total tertiary-enrolment capacity

and play a critical role in absorbing unmet student demand from the public sector. Yet, like their Zambian

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counterparts, these institutions receive no direct government financial assistance even though they comply with

national accreditation requirements and contribute to the Treasury through taxes (UNICEF, 2023).

Malawi’s Vision 2063 and National Education Sector Investment Plan (NESIP 2020–2030) call for stronger

public–private partnerships to achieve equitable and sustainable education outcomes (Government of Malawi,

2020). However, implementation remains limited; funding mechanisms still overwhelmingly favour public

universities. Empirical patterns thus reveal a policy-practice gap that constrains distributive justice and limits

tertiary-education expansion.

Faith-based institutions in Malawi demonstrate higher graduation stability and employability rates than many

public institutions, according to internal reports from MAU (2023) and NCHE summaries (2023). The absence

of systematic state support jeopardizes their sustainability and undercuts national goals for inclusive education

and human-capital development.

Comparative Perspective

Both Zambia and Malawi illustrate the paradox of moral recognition without material support. Empirical

evidence shows that faith-based universities supply a significant share of graduates, contribute taxes, and

uphold accreditation standards, yet remain excluded from public-funding mechanisms. Zambia’s more

elaborate HELSB system provides limited reach, while Malawi’s centralized funding leaves non-state actors

almost entirely self-financed. Policy realignment toward outcome-based funding-anchored in accreditation and

social-impact indicators-would correct distributive imbalances and harmonize theological ethics with practical

socio-economic development (HEA, 2024; NCHE, 2023; UNESCO, 2023).

Church-State Separation, Stewardship, and the Moral Imperative of Justice

The Seventh-day Adventist Church has historically upheld the doctrine of church-state separation, grounded in

the conviction that genuine religious liberty thrives only when the state refrains from legislating matters of

conscience, and the church avoids political domination (Knight, 1993; Morgan, 2001). This principle, deeply

rooted in both the Protestant Reformation and the American experience of religious freedom, aims to safeguard

faith from coercion while ensuring that moral principles inform civic life. However, this separation does not

require silence in the face of structural injustice or moral inequity. Within the Adventist worldview,

stewardship is both spiritual and social-it calls believers to responsibly use their influence, resources, and

moral authority to promote the common good (White, 1903).

In this light, the call for distributive justice-the equitable allocation of national resources, including educational

funding-does not violate church-state neutrality. Instead, it fulfills the moral duty of the faith community to

advocate for fairness, equity, and human dignity. Ellen G. White (1902) admonished that “Christians are not to

remain indifferent to injustice, but to be co-laborers with God in restoring His image in humanity” (The

Ministry of Healing, p. 173). This prophetic mandate implies that Christian engagement with the state must be

guided not by partisanship but by moral stewardship, which seeks justice for all, especially the marginalized.

Faith-based universities, therefore, participate in this redemptive work by advancing knowledge, character

formation, and service to humanity.

Philosophically, this moral engagement aligns with Immanuel Kant’s principle of universalizability, which

posits that an action is morally right only if it can be willed as a universal law without contradiction (Kant,

1785/1996). When applied to educational policy, the exclusion of faith-based universities from state funding

fails this ethical test since it cannot be universally justified without undermining fairness and equality. The

state’s obligation, therefore, extends beyond political neutrality to moral consistency: to treat all educational

institutions contributing to the public good with impartiality and justice.

Biblically, this principle finds resonance in the Golden Rule: “Therefore, whatever you want others to do for

you, do also the same for them” (Matt. 7:12; cf. Luke 6:31, NIV). The rule embodies moral reciprocity and the

universality of justice that Kant later formalized philosophically. It urges governments to treat all contributors

to national development, secular or religious, with the same fairness they expect from their citizens.

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In this moral context, government partnership with faith-based universities should not be misinterpreted as a

dilution of church-state separation. Rather, it represents an affirmation of moral universality, stewardship, and

social responsibility. Through contextual theology, this partnership is better understood as a pragmatic and

ethical collaboration aimed at societal upliftment. Contextuality becomes the antidote to false dichotomies: it

preserves the church’s theological integrity while allowing it to engage public institutions in advancing justice,

equality, and human flourishing.

Such a balance does not erode Adventist principles; it enriches them by situating the church’s mission within

the broader divine mandate to “seek justice, correct oppression, and defend the cause of the fatherless and

widow” (Isa. 1:17). When faith-based advocacy for distributive justice is rooted in stewardship and guided by

universal moral law, it transcends political expediency and becomes a sacred duty; an expression of love in

action, or what Tillich (1954) called “justice as love distributed.”

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

To reinforce the argument empirically, both countries exhibit measurable disparities in educational financing.

For instance, in 2022, Zambia allocated over 85% of tertiary education funding to public universities, while

non-state institutions-despite serving approximately 40% of tertiary learners-received no direct budgetary

allocations (Ministry of Education, 2022). In Malawi, 68% of government education expenditure went to four

public universities, leaving faith-based and private institutions to rely solely on tuition and donor support

(NCHE, 2023). Such patterns illustrate the structural inequities the study seeks to address. These quantitative

insights affirm that policy reform rooted in distributive justice could significantly enhance national human

capital outcomes. (NCHE, 2023; ZRA, 2022; UNESCO, 2023). Such patterns highlight structural inequities

that undermine inclusive educational development.

The empirical evidence from faith-based universities in Malawi and Zambia demonstrates their substantial

contribution to national education, human capital development, and moral formation. Data from Malawi

Adventist University (MAU) indicate that between 2009 and 2023, over 2,500 students graduated in fields

including education, business, health sciences, and theology (MAU Registrar, 2023). Similarly, Rusangu

University (RU) has produced more than 7,000 graduates since its accreditation in 2009, many of whom serve

in education, public service, healthcare, and ministry (HEA Report, 2024). These figures illustrate that faith-

based universities are producing highly employable graduates who actively contribute to national development.

A 2022 tracer study by the Malawi National Council for Higher Education (NCHE) reported that 73% of

graduates from religious universities found employment within one year, compared to 61% from public

universities, highlighting the practical value of these institutions in addressing national workforce needs.

Additionally, faith-based universities contribute to state revenue through taxes, including Pay-As-You-Earn

(PAYE) and corporate taxes; the Zambia Revenue Authority (2022) confirms that these contributions amount

to millions of kwacha annually. Such data challenge any perception that these institutions are financially

peripheral; on the contrary, they are integral partners in national development.

The stability and efficiency of faith-based universities further distinguish them from public counterparts.

Unlike many public institutions plagued by recurrent strikes and delayed academic calendars, universities like

MAU and RU maintain consistent academic programming, ensuring timely graduations and a reliable supply

of skilled graduates. This operational consistency underscores the institutions’ capacity for sustainable

educational delivery and their alignment with national development priorities.

From a theoretical perspective, these empirical findings reinforce the ethical and moral imperatives of

distributive justice. According to John Rawls (1971), social and economic inequalities are justified only when

they benefit the least advantaged. Excluding faith-based universities-whose graduates often come from low-

income families and contribute significantly to public welfare-from financial support contradicts the difference

principle and perpetuates structural inequities. Similarly, Christian ethical frameworks emphasize justice,

stewardship, and human dignity. As Micah 6:8 instructs, believers are called to “do justice, love mercy, and

walk humbly with God,” while Tillich (1954) frames justice as “love distributed in social relationships.”

Applying these principles, governments in Malawi and Zambia have a moral obligation to support faith-based

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universities not as charity but as restorative justice, correcting disparities that limit access and undermine

human rights. While Rawls provides a foundational framework for fairness, complementary perspectives offer

additional insights into distributive justice. Utilitarian thinkers such as John Stuart Mill emphasize maximizing

collective welfare, suggesting that government support for faith-based universities enhances societal good by

broadening access and improving graduate outcomes. African communitarian ethics-rooted in the Ubuntu

philosophy of "I am because we are'-extends this discourse by prioritizing communal responsibility, moral

solidarity, and shared prosperity. Together, these frameworks complement Christian moral reasoning by

situating justice not only as fairness but as mutual flourishing within society (Rawls, 1971). Utilitarian thinkers

such as John Stuart Mill emphasize maximizing collective welfare (Mill, 1863/1998), suggesting that

government support for faith-based universities enhances societal good by broadening access and improving

graduate outcomes. African communitarian ethics-rooted in the Ubuntu philosophy of 'I am because we are'

(Mbiti, 1969; Shutte, 2001)-extends this discourse by prioritizing communal responsibility, moral solidarity,

and shared prosperity.

Moreover, the principles of subsidiarity and sphere sovereignty provide further ethical justification. Faith-

based universities operate within their God-given sphere, fulfilling educational and moral missions that

complement state objectives. According to Messner (1945) and Kuyper (1956), higher authorities should

empower, not supplant, such institutions. By extending infrastructure support, research grants, student loans,

and tax incentives, governments would enable these universities to maximize their societal contributions while

maintaining institutional autonomy.

Contextually, the inequity is clear in both nations. In Zambia, public universities such as the University of

Zambia (UNZA) and Copperbelt University (CBU) dominate state funding, while institutions like RU, Central

Africa Baptist University, and DMI-St. Eugene University are systematically excluded from HELSB programs

(Ministry of Education, 2022). In Malawi, faith-based institutions-accounting for over 30% of national tertiary

enrollment (NCHE, 2023)-receive no direct state funding despite adhering to national accreditation standards

and contributing taxes. This exclusion undermines national commitments to equity, human rights, and

inclusive development, including Malawi’s Vision 2063 and Zambia’s Vision 2030.

Collectively, the results demonstrate that faith-based universities are national assets whose operational

efficiency, graduate employability, and social impact warrant equitable government support. Supporting these

institutions is not merely a policy preference but a moral, theological, and civic imperative that aligns with

both Rawlsian justice principles and Christian ethical teachings. Integrating these universities into government

funding frameworks would enhance educational access, improve institutional sustainability, and strengthen the

moral and intellectual fabric of society.

STRATEGIC RECOMMENDATIONS

To ensure equitable support for faith-based universities in Malawi and Zambia and to promote distributive

justice, the following strategic actions are recommended:

a. Integrate Faith-Based Universities into National Budget Frameworks

Governments should allocate a dedicated percentage of the national education budget to accredited non-profit

religious universities. This inclusion would recognize their contribution to human capital development and

ensure that they have the necessary resources to sustain quality education and expand access to underserved

communities.

b. Develop Institutional Funding Mechanisms

Beyond annual budget allocations, governments should contemplate matching grants, endowment support, or

capital improvement funds for faith-based institutions. Predictable funding mechanisms empower these

universities to elevate teaching quality, maintain facilities, and broaden academic programs, ensuring

alignment with national development objectives.

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c. Expand Student Loan and Scholarship Eligibility

Student loan schemes, including Zambia’s Higher Education Loans and Scholarships Board (HELSB) and

Malawi’s National Education Loan Fund, should extend eligibility to students enrolled in accredited faith-

based universities. Paired with need- and merit-based scholarships, these initiatives would mitigate financial

barriers, enhance enrollment equity, and promote social mobility in accordance with the principle of restorative

justice.

d. Provide Infrastructure and Research Support

Ministries of Education should incorporate faith-based universities into national strategies for laboratory

development, library enhancement, and research funding cycles. Investments in infrastructure and academic

research fortify institutional capacity, elevate educational quality, and stimulate innovation that contributes to

national development.

e. Facilitate Faculty and Staff Capacity-Building

Government programs should endorse professional development, training workshops, and collaborative

research initiatives for faculty and administrative personnel in faith-based universities. Strengthening human

capacity ensures the sustainable delivery of high-quality education and aligns institutional performance with

national quality standards.

f. Offer Tax Incentives and Fiscal Support

Faith-based universities that reinvest surpluses into educational programs, community development, or student

welfare should be eligible for tax rebates, deductions, or exemptions. Such incentives encourage responsible

financial management, reinforce the social mission of these institutions, and acknowledge their contributions

to national development.

g. Establish Multi-Denominational Education Councils

Governments should establish faith-based education councils to provide guidance on equitable resource

allocation, uphold ethical standards, and integrate moral values into national education policy. These councils

would facilitate dialogue, collaboration, and accountability between the state and religious institutions.

h. Promote Public-Private and Church-State Partnerships

Collaborative initiatives between public universities and faith-based institutions-including joint research,

curriculum development, and community outreach-can enhance knowledge exchange, improve operational

efficiency, and strengthen the national education system. Such partnerships embody the principles of

subsidiarity and sphere sovereignty, empowering institutions while complementing state objectives.

i. Monitor and Evaluate Impact

Implement a government-led monitoring and evaluation framework to assess the efficacy of financial support,

scholarships, and infrastructure investments in faith-based universities. Continuous evaluation ensures

accountability, informs policy adjustments, and maximizes the societal and educational impact of government

interventions.

k. Align Support with National Development Visions

Financial and policy support for faith-based universities should be strategically aligned with Zambia’s Vision

2030 and Malawi’s Vision 2063, which emphasize inclusive growth, human capital development, and public-

private partnerships. Such alignment ensures that faith-based institutions are recognized as integral partners in

national development rather than peripheral actors.

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By enacting these recommendations, governments in Malawi and Zambia can uphold principles of distributive

justice, promote equitable access to higher education, and harness the full potential of faith-based universities

as partners in national development.

CONCLUSION

Integrating empirical evidence and diverse philosophical frameworks strengthens the moral and policy

relevance of this study. The findings show that distributive justice in higher education requires a balanced

approach-anchored in both moral theology and measurable socio-economic realities. When theological ethics,

Rawlsian fairness, and communitarian values intersect, they generate a robust model for equitable education

policy. (Mbiti, 1969; Rawls, 1971; Tillich, 1954). When theological ethics, Rawlsian fairness, and

communitarian values intersect, they generate a robust model for equitable education policy that aligns with

both Christian ethics and human rights imperatives (United Nations, 1948; African Charter, 1981).

Faith-based universities in Malawi and Zambia stand as vital partners in national development, moral

formation, and social transformation. Rooted in values of service, integrity, and holistic education, these

institutions contribute not only to intellectual advancement but also to the moral and spiritual shaping of

society. Their exclusion from government financial support-whether through student loans, infrastructure

funding, or research grants-represents a form of structural inequality that contradicts both the spirit of national

constitutions and the global commitment to inclusive education enshrined in Sustainable Development Goal 4

(SDG 4).

The ethical principle of distributive justice demands that public resources be shared equitably among all

institutions contributing to the common good. Faith-based universities, many of which operate on non-profit

models and serve students from diverse religious and socio-economic backgrounds, undeniably advance the

same national objectives pursued by public institutions. Denying them access to public funding mechanisms,

therefore, is inconsistent not only with Christian moral teaching but also with constitutional principles of

fairness and equality.

A nuanced application of the Seventh-day Adventist principle of Church–State separation does not negate

cooperation for the public good. Rather, when understood contextually, it guards against coercion while

allowing constructive collaboration rooted in shared moral and social objectives. Adventists uphold that the

state should not legislate religion nor interfere with faith-based autonomy; yet, this separation does not imply

alienation. Within the framework of contextuality, the moral call for stewardship and moral obligation invites

both Church and State to participate in advancing justice, equity, and human development without

compromising their respective missions.

This position harmonizes with Immanuel Kant’s principle of universalizability, which urges that moral actions

be those that can be willed as universal laws, and with the biblical “golden rule” (Matt. 7:12; Luke 6:31),

which teaches: “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.” Applying these principles to education

policy compels governments to act justly toward all learning institutions, ensuring that fairness, not favoritism,

defines public service.

By embracing the Christian principles of subsidiarity and stewardship, governments in Zambia and Malawi

can nurture a higher education system that is inclusive, morally grounded, and contextually responsive.

Subsidiarity calls for empowering local and independent institutions to fulfill their unique missions effectively,

while stewardship emphasizes the responsible management of national resources for the common good.

Together, these values promote a model of partnership where the state supports without controlling, enables

without absorbing, and collaborates without compromising faith identity.

Furthermore, integrating faith-based universities into the broader national education framework would align

with Zambia’s Vision 2030 and Malawi’s Vision 2063, both of which emphasize inclusive growth, partnership,

and human capital development. Such integration would not only expand access to quality education but also

reinforce moral and civic formation as pillars of sustainable development.

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Ultimately, the moral call of distributive justice challenges policymakers to view education not as a privilege

of public institutions but as a shared societal responsibility. When governments apply the universal principle of

fairness-echoed in Kantian ethics and the teachings of Christ-they uphold both human dignity and divine

stewardship.

When Church and State collaborate on the foundation of fairness, transparency, and mutual respect, democracy

is not weakened-it is strengthened. Such collaboration transforms education into a sacred trust: a channel

through which faith, knowledge, and justice converge to build nations where opportunity, morality, and human

flourishing are shared blessings for all.

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