INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
Page 8546
www.rsisinternational.org
Challenges in Advancing Internationalization of Student Mobility
(ISM) in Malaysian Tertiary Education
Yee Siew Ching, Zainudin Bin Hassan
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
DOI:
https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000695
Received: 03 November 2025; Accepted: 10 November 2025; Published: 21 November 2025
ABSTRACT
The internationalization of students is fundamental for education worldwide, promoting cross- cultural exchange
and driving economic development. Malaysia, with initiatives such as the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015-
2025, seeks to position itself as a leading education hub in Southeast Asia. However, significant challenges
hinder the country's capacity to attract and retain international students. This study explores the barriers to
advancing internationalization of student mobility in Malaysia. Using secondary data sources, incorporating
insights from scholarly articles, policy documents, and statistical reports. Findings indicate challenges such as
language barriers, complex administrative procedures, cultural adaptations, academic integration, and
insufficient institutional resources are significant barriers. Offering recommendations for government and
policymakers to simplify administrative processes, improve language support, and promote inclusive campus
environments. Providing essential perspectives to enhance Malaysia's status as a global education centre, while
also deepening the academic experience and facilitating global knowledge sharing.
Keywords: barrier, higher education, internationalization, student mobility, Malaysia,
INTRODUCTION
The internationalization of student mobility (ISM) is crucial for advancing higher education, promoting the
sharing of knowledge, skills, and cultural perspectives across various countries. Characterized by the relocation
of students to engage in educational programs outside their home countries (Knight, 2014). ISM has witnessed
remarkable growth, with the number of international students exceeded 6 million in 2022, in contrast to just
over 2 million in 2000 (Singh, 2024). Motivated by global connectivity, the quest for varied educational
experiences, and a growing focus on international qualifications to enhance employment prospects worldwide
(Brooks & Waters, 2022). Moreover, Malaysia is evolving as a notable education centre, effectively attracting
international students through well-planned initiatives such as the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015–2025.
Malaysia being home to over 86,000 international students, showcases its unique advantages such as
affordability, rich cultural diversity, and a strategic position close to key regions like the Middle East and
Southeast Asia (Abdullah, Wan, & Sirat, 2022). Aside from this, using English as the primary language of
instruction in many Malaysian universities enhances its attraction to students from Asia and other areas who do
not speak English as their first language (Glass & Cruz, 2023).
Despite the significant benefits, Malaysia faces substantial obstacles in its pursuit of attracting 250,000
international students by 2025. Systemic issues, such as complex visa processes and insufficient academic
resources, diminish the country's attraction (Yang & Tian, 2023). Cultural barriers, including language
variations and integration difficulties, amplify the challenges faced by international students, while financial
constraints and strict regulations further impede accessibility and retention (Xu, 2023). These challenges,
however, highlight a pressing need for Malaysia to reevaluate its ISM strategies to remain competitive within
the dynamic multifaceted global education landscape.
Thus, it is crucial to acknowledge that the existing literature on ISM often adopts a Western-centric
perspective,
overlooking
the
unique
dynamics
found
in
non-Western educational contexts like Malaysia. For instance, prior
studies by Arah, Ogbu, & Okeke, (2008); Ratchatakulpat, Yongyingprasert, & Wadeecharoen, (2018); and
Kankhuni, & Ngwira, (2019) predominantly focus on well-known destinations such as the United States, the
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
Page 8547
www.rsisinternational.org
United Kingdom, and Australia, neglecting the increasing importance of developing centres in Asia (Ali, Zhou,
Hussain, Nair, & Ragavan, 2016). This gap hinders the understanding of how countries like Malaysia navigate
deep-rooted challenges while striving to position themselves as pioneers in the sphere of global education.
Hence, this study addresses these drawbacks by exploring the different challenges to ISM in Malaysia,
evaluating their impact on the country’s educational and economic objectives, and proposing targeted strategies
to overcome these challenges. Thus, provides a comprehensive understanding of Malaysia’s ISM ecosystem,
contributing to the global dialogue on higher education and emphasizing the impact of emerging economies on
international student mobility. Furthermore, the findings offer essential insights for decision-makers,
institutions, and international collaborators, underscoring the significance of ISM initiatives in a rapidly
evolving global academic environment.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theoretical Background- The Push-Pull Theory in Higher Education
The internationalization of student mobility (ISM) is an emerging occurrence shaped by a multifaceted
interaction of various motivating and attractive factors that affect students' choices to seek higher education in
foreign countries. The push-pull theory, first introduced by Pawar, & Chanda, (2024), offers a solid foundation
for comprehending these motivations. The theory suggests that the internalization of students is shaped by
various push factors present in their home countries and pull factors found in the countries they wish to move
to. Meanwhile, the Push factors refer to unfavourable conditions or limitations in the home country that compel
students to seek opportunities elsewhere. Factors may include political instability, restricted access to quality
education, economic difficulties, and safety issues (Hu, Wotipka, & Wen, 2016; Bempechat, & Shernoff, 2012).
For example, individuals from nations with less advanced higher education systems frequently seek
opportunities to pursue their studies overseas to engage with specialized academic programs and improved
learning environments (Fakunle, 2019).
On the other hand, pull factors signify the appealing characteristics of destination countries that entice students
to choose them. These encompass opportunities for superior education, esteemed institutions, reasonable living
expenses, rich cultural diversity, and favourable career opportunities after graduation (Zhang, & Zhou, 2018;
Ahmad & Buchanan, 2016). Countries known for their exceptional educational standards and robust support
frameworks for international learners are especially attractive. Moreover, in Malaysia, the attractive factors are
clear in its reasonable tuition costs, instruction in English, diverse cultural settings, and advantageous geographic
location. Nevertheless, these benefits are impeded by significant obstacles, including stringent immigration
regulations, language challenges, and insufficient infrastructure (Abdullah et al., 2022; Glass & Cruz, 2023).
Thus, the interplay of various influences ultimately shapes Malaysia’s effectiveness in drawing in and keeping
international students.
Interestingly, the push-pull framework highlights the importance of factors unique to each destination, including
government policies and institutional strategies, in influencing ISM flows. Whereas, Western nations such as
the United States and the United Kingdom depend on their academic reputation as a significant attraction,
developing countries like Malaysia need to utilize cost-effectiveness and regional partnerships to stay
competitive (Bustos-Orosa, & Symaco, 2024). Necessitating customized approaches that resonate with
Malaysia’s distinct socio-economic and cultural landscape.
Recently, the push-pull framework has evolved to embrace a multipolar perspective, acknowledging the
emergence of new educational hubs in Asia, like Malaysia, as competitors to traditional Western sites. Xu (2023)
presents a perspective focused on a multipolar structure, highlighting the need for non-Western countries such
as Malaysia, China, and South Korea, to modify their strategies to leverage their unique strengths and tackle
difficult challenges. However, this viewpoint enhances the theoretical structure by incorporating emerging
trends in mobility, shaped by regional influences and the changing preferences of students who move
internationally. Conclusively, the push-pull theory provides a thorough framework for examining ISM,
especially in developing educational centres such as Malaysia. By comprehending the driving forces and
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
Page 8548
www.rsisinternational.org
challenges encountered by international students, stakeholders can create targeted strategies to tackle systemic
barriers and enhance Malaysia’s position in the global higher education arena (Jafar, & Legusov, 2021).
Global Trends in Internationalization of Student Mobility
Recently, the internationalization of higher education has resulted in a notable rise in the number of students
pursuing educational opportunities overseas. As reported by Antoninis, Alcott, Al Hadheri, April, Fouad
Barakat, Barrios Rivera, & Weill, (2023) the number of students studying abroad exceeded 6 million in 2022,
marking a significant increase from slightly more than 2 million in 2000. Influenced by various factors such as
the need for varied educational opportunities, the availability of specialized programs absent in home countries,
and the perceived benefits of international qualifications in the global labour market (Xu, 2023; Brooks &
Waters, 2022). Whereas, Glass & Cruz, (2023), and Ali, et al. (2016) believe that countries such as the United
States, the United Kingdom, and Australia continue to be prominent destinations; nonetheless, emerging hubs
in Asia, including Malaysia, China, and South Korea, are contesting established supremacy, providing attractive
costs and distinctive cultural experiences
Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic triggered a temporary shift in ISM patterns, leading to the emergence of
online learning as a viable alternative (Onileowo, Muharam, & Ramliy, 2022). Whereas, the recovery after the
pandemic has underscored the strength and lasting attraction of physical mobility, leading to the development
of hybrid models that enhance conventional student exchanges (Yang & Tian, 2023). Further, the transition
towards a multipolar environment in international relations highlights the increasing significance of regional
educational centres, as non-Western nations enhance their abilities to draw in global talent (Xu, 2023).
Based on this, the advantages of ISM reach far beyond personal growth. According to Alsharari, (2018),
international students enhance the cultural landscape, drive economic development, and elevate the global
standing of higher education systems in host countries. Emphasizing the strategic policies of the Malaysian
government aimed at establishing the country as a regional education hub, highlighting the transformative
potential of ISM. Malaysian institutions draw students from various backgrounds, promoting cross-cultural
exchange and equipping graduates to thrive in a globalized workforce (Ali, et al., Hussain, Nair, & Ragavan,
2016; Abdullah, et al., 2022). International students play a crucial role in the economy by contributing through
their tuition fees, living expenses, and associated costs. Glass & Cruz, (2023) revealed that the global market
for higher education exports exceeds $300 billion each year, with Malaysia increasingly securing a significant
portion due to its cost-effective and high-quality educational programs. As a result, the presence of international
students enriches campus diversity, fostering mutual understanding and collaboration among different cultures.
Although the clear advantages are evident, various obstacles hinder the advancement of ISM in Malaysia.
Abdullah, et al. (2022) highlight that insufficient intercultural competence among faculty and staff poses a
significant barrier, frequently resulting in misunderstandings and inadequate support for international students.
Furthermore, the lack of adequate support services, including orientation programs and mental health resources
specifically designed for international students, impacts the overall experience and retention rates. Including
Financial limitations that significantly impact Malaysia's competitiveness relative to other regions that provide
scholarships or subsidized education (Onileowo, Muharam, & Ramily, 2022; Shahijan, Rezaei, & Preece, 2016).
Consequently, Steagall, Falk, Gallo, & Porter, (2021) noted that a persisting challenge is the necessity for
improved cooperation with global partners to optimize procedures like credit transfers, visa applications, and
dual-degree programs. According to Xu, (2023), these collaborations are essential for enhancing Malaysia's
attractiveness in a competitive ISM environment. Antoninis, et al. (2023); and Yang & Tian, (2023) highlight
the necessity of tackling these obstacles to secure sustainable development in ISM and upholding Malaysia’s
goal of establishing itself as a leading educational centre in Asia. Teichler, (2017) affirmed that ISM is an
evolving and crucial component of global higher education, providing reciprocal advantages to both students
and host nations. Surprisingly, Malaysia has shown notable advancement, yet ongoing barriers necessitate
focused approaches to maintain its development in this area. By tackling these challenges, Malaysia can
strengthen its status as a premier choice for international students, in harmony with global trends and the
evolving dynamics in ISM (Urban, & Palmer, 2014).
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
Page 8549
www.rsisinternational.org
Barriers In Non-Western Contexts
The internationalization of students has transformed the environment of higher education, offering individuals
opportunities for cultural exchange, improved learning experiences, and global career prospects (De Wit, &
Altbach, 2021). However, non-Western countries face significant challenges that affect their ability to attract
and retain international students. Despite the growing interest in studying abroad, students from non-Western
countries often encounter major barriers related to language proficiency, administrative issues, and adapting to
new cultural environments (De Wit, & Deca, 2020).
Language barriers become particularly apparent when English is the main medium of instruction in host
countries. While the prevalent use of English in higher education serves as an attractive incentive, non-native
speakers face considerable challenges in fulfilling both academic and social expectations. This could lead to
reduced academic success and feelings of isolation (Glass & Cruz, 2022). Meanwhile, students from non-
Western countries often come from educational systems that prioritize different language skills and teaching
methods, which can create difficulties in adjusting to the academic standards of institutions that function in
English (Goodwin, & Mbah, 2019). Addressing this issue requires enhanced language support services and
tailored pre-arrival training programs designed for different proficiency levels. Abdullah, et al. (2022)
emphasize that administrative inefficiencies, such as complex visa application processes and inconsistent
institutional policies, contribute to the difficulties encountered by international students. Whereas, in countries
like Malaysia, the lack of clarity and inconsistencies in administrative procedures intensify these challenges,
coupled with an unclear standard for credit transfers, lengthy visa processing times, and gaps in communication
between institutions and government entities resulting in frustration and may deter prospective students. Thus,
improving administrative procedures and establishing centralized, transparent systems are crucial for increasing
student satisfaction and retention (Onileowo, 2024; Elugbaju, Okeke, & Alabi, 2024).
Adapting to various cultures presents a significant challenge for international students in non-Western
environments. Noor, & Leong, (2013) opined that while countries like Malaysia flourish because of their rich
cultural diversity, the path to integration can pose difficulties for students unfamiliar with local customs and
social norms. These challenges become notably more complex when faculty and staff do not receive proper
training in cultural sensitivity, or when orientation programs fail to adequately prepare students for their
experiences in the host country. However, the effects of cultural shock, social isolation, and discrimination may
severely impact students' well-being and academic performance. Thus, thorough orientation initiatives,
mentorship programs, and cross-cultural training for both students and faculty can greatly improve the
development of an inclusive environment.
Moreover, studies by Sahin, (2018); Dimmock, (2020), and Pedro, Subosa, Rivas, & Valverde, (2019) have
largely focused on the experiences of students in Western countries, leading to a significant gap in understanding
the difficulties faced by individuals in educational institutions outside the West. Addressing this gap is essential
for crafting targeted strategies that can support emerging education centres, like Malaysia, in enhancing their
attraction and competitiveness in the global higher education arena. Hence, future research can focus on the
distinct socio-political, economic, and cultural environments of non-Western nations to propose relevant and
impactful solutions.
Malaysia’s Educational Policy Landscape
Malaysia's aspiration to position itself as a regional hub for education is reflected in its strategic initiatives, such
as the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015–2025 and the National Higher Education Strategic Plan Beyond 2020.
These policies aim to elevate the global reputation of the nation's education system by attracting a greater
number of international students, improving the quality of academic programs, and fostering partnerships
between Malaysian institutions and foreign universities (Antoninis et al., 2023). However, while these initiatives
have facilitated significant advancements in Malaysia's ability to attract students, there remain certain areas that
necessitate improvement for sustainable development.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
Page 8550
www.rsisinternational.org
Moreover, Amaghouss, & Zouine, (2022) posit that the focus of these policies on boosting enrolment figures
has, at times, eclipsed the significance of quality and inclusivity. The existing frameworks have failed to
adequately tackle administrative inefficiencies, the necessity for thorough student support services, or the
creation of inclusive campus environments. Abdullah et al. (2022) emphasize that these deficiencies could
obstruct Malaysia's goals of establishing itself as a premier education hub. Hence, it is crucial to tackle these
gaps to ensure that Malaysia not only attracts students but also retains them and aids in their successful
integration and academic success.
To accomplish this, Malaysia’s policies should redirect their emphasis toward implementing specific initiatives
that improve the quality of the student experience. This involves optimizing visa processes, enhancing language
support initiatives, investing in modern academic facilities, and fostering cultural understanding and inclusivity
(Knight, 2014). Harmonizing these policies with global standards and addressing the requirements of
international students can enhance Malaysia’s standing in a progressively competitive multipolar ISM
environment. As a result, these strategic modifications will assist Malaysia in achieving its objective of
welcoming 250,000 international students by 2025, while also promoting enduring sustainability and
advancement in the global higher education environment (Wan, & Abdullah, 2021).
Institutional Barriers To Malaysian Higher Education
Malaysia has engaged in proactive efforts to establish itself as a prominent regional hub for international
education. Notwithstanding these endeavours, institutional barriers continue to impede the advancement and
efficacy of the Internationalisation of Student Mobility (ISM). This review examines three significant challenges
within this field: university policies and administrative procedures, the restricted availability of internationalized
curricula and programs, and capacity-related issues concerning facilities, housing, and student support services.
University Policies And Administrative Procedures
The policies and administrative procedures within Malaysian higher education frequently present considerable
obstacles to the mobility of international students. As highlighted by Abdullah et al. (2022) and Wilkins, (2016)
the prolonged duration of visa processing, the inconsistency of transparent communication channels, and the
variability of policies across institutions frequently lead to frustration among international students, thereby
hindering their capacity to effectively navigate administrative systems. Studies indicate that although Malaysia's
Ministry of Higher Education has advanced in the simplification of regulations, the execution at the institutional
level continues to exhibit inconsistencies, resulting in frustration among students (Antoninis et al., 2023).
Moreover, the absence of effective coordination among different governmental bodies and academic institutions
intensifies these challenges. Administrative inefficiencies in domains such as credit transfers and the recognition
of qualifications serve to further dissuade prospective international students (Amaghouss, & Zouine, 2022).
Ghasemy, Hussin, Megat Daud, Md Nor, Ghavifekr, & Kenayathulla (2018) argued that these procedural
challenges significantly affect the reputation of Malaysian institutions and contribute to the decline of enrolled
international students, who frequently perceive a lack of support in navigating through bureaucratic systems.
For instance, institutions in nations such as Singapore and South Korea have adopted exemplary practices,
including centralized administrative systems, which Malaysia might consider emulating to rectify its existing
deficiencies (Thun, 2018).
Limited Availability Of Internationalized Curricula And Programs
The constrained internationalization of curricula within Malaysian higher education diminishes its attractiveness
to students who are globally mobile. While there has been some advancement in providing English-medium
instruction and collaborative degree programs, numerous courses continue to be entrenched in local contexts
and do not adequately address global competencies (Glass & Cruz, 2022). According to Antoninis et al. (2023)
in terms of intensifying competition within global higher education, Malaysia's position is undermined by the
absence of culturally inclusive and internationally pertinent curricula, particularly when compared with other
emerging educational hubs such as Singapore and China.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
Page 8551
www.rsisinternational.org
Brooks and Waters (2022) highlighted that the lack of internationally standardized curricula diminishes
Malaysia's competitiveness among Western and other Asian educational centres, including Singapore and South
Korea. Although certain institutions have endeavoured to implement dual-degree programs and English-medium
instruction, these initiatives frequently exhibit superficiality, thereby constraining their attractiveness to students
seeking global mobility (Glass & Cruz, 2022). Consequently, a curriculum that is internationalized and
integrates global perspectives, cross-cultural learning opportunities, and multidisciplinary approaches
significantly enhances a nation's attraction to international students (Xu, 2023). Thus, enhancing partnerships
with international institutions and committing to curriculum reform is essential for aligning Malaysian higher
education programs with global standards (Yang & Tian, 2023).
Capacity Issues: Facilities, Housing, And Student Support Services
The swift increase in the enrolment of international students in Malaysia has surpassed the establishment of
sufficient infrastructure and support services. According to Abdullah et al. (2022) inadequate classroom
facilities, obsolete laboratories, and disoriented libraries impede the educational experience for both domestic
and international students. However, the absence of affordable and high-quality on-campus housing compels
numerous international students to seek out costly or inadequate private accommodations, resulting in both
cultural and financial exclusion (Antoninis, et al., 2023).
Additionally, the provision of student support services, encompassing orientation programs, language support,
mental health resources, and academic counselling, frequently remains inadequately developed. Antoninis, et
al., (2023) and Yang & Tian, (2023) emphasize the essential function of these services in promoting international
student satisfaction and retention. Nonetheless, Malaysian institutions frequently exhibit deficiencies in both
financial and human resources, which hampers their ability to deliver comprehensive support. Whereby, the
deficiency in this area leads to challenges in academic integration, cultural adaptation, and the general welfare
of international students (Yang & Tian, 2023). As a result, Malaysian institutions may face the risk of alienating
international students and jeopardizing their credibility within the global education marketplace in the absence
of substantial investments in these domains,
Integrated Solutions
Despite Malaysia's notable advancements in drawing international students, institutional barriers persist as a
significant obstacle to realizing its ambition of emerging as a premier global education hub (Lee, & Shutler,
2024). Addressing these institutional barriers inefficiencies in administrative procedures, the expansion of
internationalized curricula, and the resolution of capacity issues necessitates coordinated efforts across multiple
levels. Malaysia has the potential to enhance its reputation within the competitive framework of global higher
education. Whereby the implementation of these measures is poised to enhance the attraction of international
students while simultaneously fostering their academic success and integration, thereby ensuring the long-term
sustainability of Malaysia’s higher education sector.
Cultural And Social Barriers
Malaysia's higher education sector has experienced a rise in the enrolment of international students, attributed
to its diverse cultural landscape and advantageous geographical position.
Nonetheless, obstacles rooted in culture and society continue to pose considerable challenges. This review
examines essential aspects of these challenges, concentrating on integration challenges, attitudes and biases
among local students and faculty, and the importance of cultural awareness in promoting inclusivity.
Integration Challenges Faced By International Students
International students in Malaysia frequently encounter challenges when trying to blend into local communities,
with cultural shock and language barriers standing out as significant hurdles. Students often experience a sense
of disorientation and solitude when they come face to face with new societal norms, values, and ways of life
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
Page 8552
www.rsisinternational.org
(Yang & Tian, 2023). For instance, international students hailing from Western nations might find it challenging
to adjust to Malaysia’s communal culture and customs, including restrictions on food and social hierarchies
(Abdullah, Wan, & Sirat, 2022). It is noteworthy that international students encounter difficulties in adjusting
to the cultural norms of Malaysia, which frequently contrast sharply with their own. Thus, the lack of adequate
orientation and cultural integration programs intensifies these challenges. Gutema, Pant, & Nikou, (2024)
indicate that international students view the cultural aspects of the host country as a crucial factor in their
decision-making process regarding whether to remain or depart. When individuals experience a sense of
belonging and can appreciate a diverse cultural landscape, they are more inclined to remain in the host nation.
Tang, & Zhang, (2023) noted that international students held favourable views of Japanese culture before their
arrival for studies and that cultural adaptability correlates positively with the intention of graduates to migrate
(Li, Xue, Wei, & Guo, 2023).
Furthermore, obstacles in communication intensify these integration difficulties, especially for students whose
primary language is not English or Malay. Even with the widespread use of English as the medium of instruction,
learners often face challenges in both academic discourse and social engagement (Glass & Cruz, 2022). These
barriers impede involvement in group discussions, extracurricular activities, and everyday interactions,
restricting international students' capacity to forge significant connections with peers and faculty. However, the
choice of international students to either return to their home country or remain after finishing their studies is
shaped by numerous factors, including socio-cultural elements. Lu, & Everson Härkälä, (2024) noted that
Language barriers present a considerable challenge, as students might face difficulties securing employment in
nations where their native language is not spoken. For instance, in Finland, the job market predominantly
operates in Swedish and Finnish, despite the availability of numerous courses in English.
Consequently, additional significant elements encompass cultural adaptability and global experience, as
individuals with greater exposure to international environments tend to have a higher likelihood of remaining
(Gutema, Pant, & Nikou, 2024). At the same time, students in Europe tend to embrace migration more readily,
thanks to initiatives such as Erasmus that promote mobility (Staniscia, Deravignone, González-Martín, &
Pumares, 2021). Emphasizing that the presence of a stable, professional job significantly influences students'
choices to remain, yet the scarcity of networking opportunities in the job market can hinder their ability to secure
employment, ultimately prompting them to go back home (Barrionuevo Bonini, 2021). Additionally, the failure
to build social connections may also contribute to students' decisions to leave the host country (Ndomo,
Bontenbal, & Lillie, 2023). Although nations such as Australia promote welcoming migration policies and
embrace cultural diversity, the process of social integration remains a challenge for international students,
especially those hailing from (China Xu, 2022). Meanwhile, various socio-cultural factors, including language
barriers, cultural adaptability, networking prospects, social resources, and social cohesion, can greatly affect the
choices of international students regarding their departure from the host nation and their return to their
homeland. Hence, policymakers and institutions take these factors into account when developing policies and
programs aimed at retaining international students in the host country.
Domestic Perceptions And Stereotypes Among Students And Faculty
The views and assumptions held by local students and faculty can greatly shape the experiences of international
students. Studies indicate that local students may occasionally view their international counterparts as rivals for
resources or opportunities, leading to feelings of resentment or hesitance in interacting with them (Neeley, 2013;
Xu, 2023). Moreover, preconceived notions regarding specific nationalities or areas can foster bias or exclusion,
intensifying the sense of isolation among international students. Faculty members might unintentionally hold
biases that influence their interactions with international students. Such biases may emerge in the interactions
within the classroom, the assessment processes, and the availability of mentorship, leading to unfair educational
settings (Brooks & Waters, 2022). Thus, the absence of intercultural training for faculty exacerbates these
challenges, underscoring the necessity for comprehensive reforms to enhance awareness and foster inclusivity.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
Page 8553
www.rsisinternational.org
Importance Of Cultural Sensitivity In Fostering Inclusivity
Understanding cultural nuances is essential for breaking down social and cultural barriers faced by international
students. Organizations that emphasize cultural awareness through their policies, training, and support services
foster more inclusive settings that benefit both international and domestic students (Antoninis et al., 2023).
Understanding and respecting diverse cultural backgrounds is essential, along with an active effort to dismantle
biases and stereotypes. Initiatives that promote interactions across cultures, like mentorship programs and
intercultural workshops, can greatly enhance integration and alleviate tensions. Training faculty in cultural
sensitivity fosters supportive academic environments that ensure international students feel valued and included
(Luong, Tran, Nguyen, Tran, Dang, & Vu, 2024). Illustrations from prominent international organizations
highlight the success of these initiatives in fostering inclusive and varied campus environments (Glass & Cruz,
2022). Obstacles rooted in culture and society, such as difficulties in integration, prevailing stereotypes, and
insufficient cultural awareness, persistently hinder the experiences of international students in Malaysia.
Overcoming these obstacles necessitates a holistic strategy that includes policy changes, focused support
services, and the proactive fostering of intercultural understanding. By cultivating inclusive environments,
Malaysian higher education institutions can more effectively assist international students and elevate their global
standing (Xiaotong, Aziz, Hamzah, Yue, & Changli, 2024).
Economic And Financial Barriers
Economic and financial obstacles greatly influence the involvement and experiences of international students in
Malaysia. Although the country is more affordable than Western destinations, financial obstacles continue to
hinder its ability to fully emerge as a global centre for higher education. This study reviewed three essential
aspects of these obstacles: High tuition costs and living expenses, restricted availability of scholarships and
funding options, and the influence of economic inequalities among originating countries on student movement.
High Tuition Fees And Cost Of Living For International Students
For numerous international students, the expenses associated with tuition and the cost of living in Malaysia
continue to be significant issues. Although Malaysia provides education at a lower cost than nations such as the
United States, United Kingdom, and Australia, the financial strain remains considerable for students hailing
from low- and middle-income countries (Gomez, Cheong, & Wong, 2021). In Malaysian universities,
international students typically face tuition fees that exceed those of domestic students, highlighting the
increasing commercialization of higher education (Abdullah et al., 2022). The increasing expenses associated
with urban living, particularly in areas housing most universities, intensify the financial burden beyond just
tuition fees. Costs associated with lodging, travel, and medical care, coupled with variations in currency value,
especially put students from countries with less robust currencies at a disadvantage (Gomez, Cheong, & Wong,
2021). Wilson, Hastings, Morris, Ramia, & Mitchell, (2023) show that financial pressures frequently result in
part-time employment, which, because of visa limitations, can disrupt students’ academic responsibilities.
Restricted Access to Scholarships, Financial Aid, And Funding Opportunities
One major obstacle faced by international students in Malaysia is the scarcity of scholarships and financial
assistance. While Malaysia has launched initiatives like the Malaysia International Scholarship (MIS) to draw
in global talent, these efforts still fall short of fulfilling the demand (Hoo, Zainal, & Chai, 2014; Ali et al., 2016).
Many scholarships focus on merit or specific areas of study, which creates a disparity for students from
disadvantaged backgrounds or those engaged in less emphasized fields. Private and institutional scholarships
often prioritize domestic students, which limits the opportunities available for international candidates. This
disparity poses significant obstacles for students hailing from developing nations who depend on external
financial support to pursue higher education overseas (Rambe, & Moeti, 2017). Enhancing financial aid
initiatives and cultivating collaborations with global organizations may effectively address this disparity and
improve Malaysia’s appeal as a study destination (Amzat, Najimdeen, Walters, Yusuf, & Padilla-Valdez, 2023).
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
Page 8554
www.rsisinternational.org
Economic Inequalities Among Originating Countries On Student Mobility
The economic variations among source countries significantly affect the movement of international students to
Malaysia. Students hailing from affluent nations frequently enjoy enhanced access to financial means, allowing
them to select from a broader array of educational destinations, such as Malaysia (Brooks & Waters, 2022). On
the other hand, students hailing from low-income nations encounter considerable financial obstacles, which
restrict their ability to move freely and foster an unequal dependence on assistance and affordable educational
options. The disparity in economic resources significantly influences the makeup of international student
groups, as more affluent areas tend to lead in enrolment figures. This disparity weakens the variety within the
international student community, an essential element for promoting global skills and cultural interactions (Smit,
2012). To tackle this challenge, it is essential to implement focused outreach and funding efforts aimed at
underrepresented areas, especially in Africa and South Asia, where there is a significant, yet unfulfilled, demand
for accessible education (Jacob, Neubauer, & 2018).
Moreover, Economic and financial obstacles, such as high tuition costs, restricted financial assistance, and
inequalities among originating countries, present considerable difficulties for international student mobility in
Malaysia (Hoo, Zainal, & Chai, 2014). To address these challenges, Malaysian higher education institutions and
policymakers need to implement a comprehensive strategy. Programs must encompass subsidized tuition,
broaden scholarship opportunities, and improve financial assistance specifically designed for students from
economically disadvantaged backgrounds. Also, promoting global partnerships to support scholarships and
developing creative funding strategies could address economic inequalities and enhance the inclusivity and
competitiveness of higher education in Malaysia (Wan, & Abdullah, 2021).
Policy And Regulatory Barriers
The frameworks of policy and regulation are essential in influencing the patterns of international student
movement. In Malaysia, these frameworks shape the recruitment and retention of international students, as well
as their overall experience within the country. This section explores three significant challenges related to policy
and regulation: visa and immigration limitations, government policies impacting recruitment, and the absence
of efficient procedures for work permits and post-study opportunities.
Visa And Immigration Restrictions Specific To Malaysia
The attraction of Malaysia as a study destination is greatly shaped by its visa and immigration policies.
International students frequently encounter intricate, lengthy, and variable visa application procedures, which
pose obstacles to their entry (Johnson, 2018). Obstacles consist of ambiguous documentation criteria, extended
processing durations, and challenges in manoeuvring through regulatory structures that differ among states and
institutions. Malaysia enforces limitations on the work rights of international students while they are pursuing
their studies. Compared to certain countries that permit students to engage in part-time employment, Malaysia's
regulations are notably stricter, thereby restricting avenues for achieving financial independence (Cheong, &
Narayanan, 2021). This limitation diminishes Malaysia's attractiveness as a study destination and imposes
further financial strain on students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds (Hoo, Zainal, & Chai, 2014).
Governmental Policies Influencing International Student Recruitment
Malaysia’s strategic initiatives, including the National Higher Education Strategic Plan Beyond 2020, are
designed to elevate the nation’s status as a prominent centre for global education. Nonetheless, discrepancies
and changes in government focus have posed difficulties for sustained international student recruitment (Khanal,
& Gaulee, 2019). For instance, although certain initiatives aim to boost the enrolment of students from particular
areas like the Middle East and Southeast Asia, there exists a lack of coherence between these policies and the
ability of institutions to address the varied requirements of international students (Nieveen, & Plomp, 2018).
Furthermore, policies frequently emphasize quantity rather than quality, resulting in insufficient support systems
for students and a decline in the overall academic experience (Brooks & Waters, 2022). While policy documents
advocate for international partnerships, their implementation often falls short of expectations. This gap obstructs
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
Page 8555
www.rsisinternational.org
the recruitment of top-tier students and constrains Malaysia's ability to compete with other favored study
destinations, including Australia, Singapore, and the UK (Abdullah, Wan, & Sirat, 2022).
Lack Of Streamlined Processes For Student Work Permits And Post-Study Opportunities
One of the essential aspects where Malaysia falls short compared to global competitors is in offering transparent
avenues for international students to acquire work experience both during and after their academic pursuits.
Securing work permits for part-time positions presents challenges, and the availability of post-study
employment options is constrained by stringent immigration regulations (Crumley-Effinger, 2024). Contrary to
nations like Canada and Australia which promote post-study employment with clear visa extensions and work
permits, Malaysia's approach is disjointed. This constraint deters international students from considering
Malaysia as a feasible long-term option for career advancement. Moreover, the absence of post-study
opportunities diminishes the return on investment for students, with many perceiving their education in Malaysia
as providing limited prospects for economic growth in comparison to other nations (Cheong, Hill, Fernandez-
Chung, & Leong, 2016).
Additionally, the challenges posed by policy and regulatory frameworks, such as visa limitations, discrepancies
in government recruitment strategies, and restricted work permit availability, greatly impede Malaysia's capacity
to attract and keep international students. To tackle these challenges, it is essential to implement thorough
reforms that streamline visa procedures, synchronize recruitment strategies with the capabilities of institutions,
and create opportunities for employment after graduation (Jackson, Riebe, & Macau, 2022). By tackling these
challenges, Malaysia can enhance its status as a global centre for higher education while cultivating a more
inclusive and supportive atmosphere for international students.
Strategies For Addressing Barriers And Enhancing The Internationalization Of Student Mobility
Policy reforms are essential for overcoming barriers to international student mobility in Malaysia. The
optimization of visa processes is crucial for minimizing bureaucratic inefficiencies that may discourage potential
students. Furthermore, aligning employment laws and post-study opportunities with international best practices
has the potential to enhance Malaysia's competitiveness in the global educational landscape. Likewise, enhanced
language training programs both pre-arrival and on-campus are essential for addressing the linguistic challenges
encountered by international students, thereby facilitating improved academic achievement and more effective
social integration. Collaborative initiatives with training providers and the integration of language support
within curricula can significantly improve these initiatives. Promoting cultural integration via customized
orientation programs, mentorship initiatives, and events that reflect diversity can cultivate a more inclusive
academic atmosphere while mitigating cultural shock and perceptions.
Institutional Investment In Infrastructure And Support Services Holds Equal Significance.
Addressing housing shortages, expanding access to facilities, and strengthening counselling and academic
advising systems are essential measures to enhance the student experience. Meanwhile, digital innovations,
including intuitive portals for administrative and academic resources, have the potential to enhance operational
efficiency and foster engagement. Collectively, these reforms serve to alleviate the challenges encountered by
international students while simultaneously enhancing Malaysia's position on the global stage as a centre for
education. Through collaborative endeavours among policymakers, institutions, and stakeholders, Malaysia has
the potential to establish a higher education ecosystem that is both inclusive and globally competitive, ultimately
serving the interests of all constituents.
Policy Reforms And Administrative Efficiency
Improving visa processes and administrative protocols is crucial for diminishing obstacles to entry for
international students. Governments and institutions need to implement centralized and transparent digital
systems to facilitate the efficient management of visa applications, academic registrations, and student inquiries.
Aligning work permits and post-study opportunities with international best practices will significantly boost
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
Page 8556
www.rsisinternational.org
Malaysia’s attractiveness as a destination for higher education. Implementing proactive training programs for
administrative personnel focused on cultural competence and regulatory frameworks can facilitate seamless
operations and cultivate a supportive environment.
Curriculum Internationalization And Academic Quality
The formulation of curricula that are aligned with international standards is essential for the recruitment of
students from a variety of geographical backgrounds. Institutions must incorporate global perspectives within
their course content, establish joint degree programs in collaboration with international universities, and foster
research partnerships that transcend national boundaries. Thus, investing in faculty training and development to
enhance teaching quality and cultural competence represents a crucial measure in the pursuit of academic
excellence.
Comprehensive Language Support
Language barriers represent a considerable obstacle for numerous international students. Institutions must
provide pre-arrival and continuous English language programs that are specifically designed to accommodate
varying levels of proficiency. Whereas, the incorporation of language support within the academic framework,
including writing centres and peer-assisted learning sessions, has the potential to enhance students' academic
and social integration. It is of equal significance to provide training for administrative personnel in multilingual
communication to enhance support for non-native English speakers.
Cultural Integration Initiatives
Promoting an inclusive campus culture is essential for improving the experience of international students.
Institutions must establish orientation programs that offer comprehensive insights into local cultural norms and
social practices. Moreover, Mentorship initiatives that connect international students with local peers or faculty
members serve to bridge cultural gaps and foster mutual understanding. Thus, the recognition of cultural
diversity through events and dialogue sessions serves to eliminate misconceptions and cultivate a sense of
belonging within communities.
Enhanced Infrastructure And Support Systems
Investment in infrastructure, including affordable housing, accessible transportation, and advanced academic
facilities, is essential for meeting the demands of an expanding international student demographic.
Comprehensive support services, covering counselling, career guidance, and health services, should be
specifically designed to address the distinct challenges encountered by international students. Likewise, the
utilization of digital platforms to promote student engagement, gather feedback, and provide access to resources
has the potential to significantly enhance the overall educational experience.
Financial Accessibility And Scholarships
Institutions and governmental bodies must enhance their financial support mechanisms, including scholarships,
financial aid, and student loan programs, with a particular focus on international students, to mitigate economic
barriers. Moreover, collaborations with private entities and international organizations may facilitate the
generation of supplementary funding avenues. Whereas, the clear and open distribution of information regarding
financial support programs is essential for effectively engaging prospective students from economically
disadvantaged backgrounds.
Strategic Partnerships And Global Branding
The establishment of strategic partnerships with international universities, research institutions, and global
organizations has the potential to significantly enhance academic mobility and fortify the reputation of
Malaysia’s higher education sector. Collaborative programs, including exchange opportunities, joint research
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
Page 8557
www.rsisinternational.org
initiatives, and dual-degree pathways, provide significant benefits to both domestic and international students.
Moreover, promoting Malaysia as a leading education centre through strategic campaigns and engagement in
international education fairs has the potential to draw a wider and more varied student demographic. The
implementation of these strategies necessitates a collaborative endeavour among governmental bodies,
institutions of higher education, and private sector stakeholders. Through the rectification of administrative
inefficiencies, the promotion of cultural inclusivity, the enhancement of academic quality, and the assurance of
financial accessibility, Malaysia has the potential to fortify its standing as a formidable entity within the global
academic arena. Whereas, the initiatives undertaken serve to enhance the educational experiences of
international students while simultaneously improving local educational frameworks, thereby fostering the
socio-economic development of the nation and its position within the global knowledge economy.
Implication Of The Study
This study investigates the challenges, to enhancing the internationalization of student mobility in Malaysian
higher education, bearing significant implications for policymakers, educational institutions, and global
stakeholders. The research highlights the complex obstacles spanning administrative shortcomings to cultural
adjustments that impede Malaysia's ambitions to establish itself as a premier education centre. The results
highlight the critical necessity for targeted actions to streamline administrative procedures, improve language
assistance frameworks, and foster inclusive campus atmospheres. By tackling these challenges, Malaysia can
enhance its attractiveness and competitiveness in the international education landscape. Additionally, nurturing
a welcoming environment for international students will enhance Malaysia’s cultural and academic diversity
while also significantly impacting the country's economic development and international reputation. These
insights hold significant value for other developing education centres encountering comparable challenges,
providing a framework for leveraging their distinct advantages to improve ISM. Ultimately, the research
highlights the necessity of embracing a more intricate, diverse viewpoint in upcoming studies on ISM, fostering
a more inclusive comprehension of global educational interactions.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Several strategic recommendations are proposed to improve the outcomes and experience of internationalization
student mobility. It is essential to prioritize support for language proficiency by offering pre-arrival and on-
campus English language courses specifically designed for international students. Moreover, administrative
staff must participate in language training to promote effective communication and support, minimizing the
chances of confusion and fostering a welcoming environment.
Secondly, it is essential to enhance administrative procedures by creating centralized and transparent systems
for visa applications and academic registrations. Equipping administrative personnel to adeptly manage
inquiries from international students will streamline processes and enhance overall satisfaction. Third, cultural
integration programs play a vital role in promoting inclusivity. Thorough orientation initiatives should include
cultural standards and social interactions, while mentorship programs that connect international students with
local counterparts can foster significant relationships and facilitate the adjustment to campus life.
Ultimately, there is a pressing need for substantial improvement in institutional resources. Enhancing
infrastructure, such as affordable student housing and accessible counselling services, is crucial for addressing
the needs of an increasingly international student community. Furthermore, enhancing financial support for
initiatives that promote global engagement, including scholarships, faculty development, and international
collaborations, will bolster Malaysia's standing as a premier choice for higher education.
Future Research Direction
Future studies on the internationalization of student mobility in Malaysia should concentrate on bridging current
gaps and recognizing new trends in this evolving area. An area of investigation is the enduring effects of
Malaysia’s international education policies on student satisfaction and professional trajectories. Comparative
studies assessing Malaysia’s performance alongside other regional education centres, like Singapore and
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
Page 8558
www.rsisinternational.org
Australia, may yield important insights into effective strategies and potential areas for enhancement.
A key focus is the efficacy of support systems within institutions. Longitudinal studies monitoring the academic
and social integration of international students would assist in pinpointing which initiatives, like mentorship
programs and language training, yield the most significant effects. Furthermore, upcoming studies might explore
the financial challenges encountered by students from economically disadvantaged nations, investigating the
impact of scholarship initiatives and financial support on their choices and experiences.
The swift evolution of digital transformation necessitates a closer examination of how technology can better
serve international students. Future studies could evaluate how digital tools, including AI-powered
administrative systems and online language training platforms, influence the alleviation of obstacles. Finally,
research should investigate the viewpoints of local students and faculty to grasp the impact of
internationalization on campus culture and to suggest approaches that promote mutual respect and collaboration.
These initiatives will together shape more inclusive and effective policies to support Malaysia's development as
a global education centre.
CONCLUSION
The global movement of students is fundamentally important for Malaysia's growth and sustainability, as it
serves as a key enabler of capabilities that will be essential for the country's future, where knowledge and global
awareness will play a critical role. A diverse range of stakeholders is present, each with distinct objectives and
expectations concerning ISM including students, academics, higher education institutions, policymakers,
nations, and supranational organizations. As a result, the aspects of Higher education in Malaysia have become
perplexing and politically charged. While accomplishments are clear, there are still aspects that require
considerable enhancement. Therefore, implementing the previously mentioned recommendations into action to
tackle the challenges of internationalization of student mobility in Malaysia necessitates collaborative efforts
among policymakers, higher education institutions, and stakeholders.
By tackling language obstacles, streamlining administrative processes, overcoming cultural hurdles, and
addressing resource constraints, Malaysia can foster a welcoming and inclusive atmosphere for international
students. The implementation of these reforms will significantly improve both the academic and personal
journeys of students, while simultaneously reinforcing Malaysia’s standing as a prominent centre for higher
education, thereby aiding its sustained economic and social growth. Given that this study is conceptual, its
reliance on secondary data hinders its ability to capture real-time changes and the individual experiences of
international students. Future research should incorporate primary data collection techniques, such as surveys
and interviews, to achieve a deeper insight into the experiences of international students in Malaysia.
REFERENCES
1. Abdullah, D., Wan, C. D., & Sirat, M. (2022). International students in Malaysian higher education. In
International student recruitment and mobility in non-Anglophone countries, 235-251. Routledge.
2. Ali, F., Zhou, Y., Hussain, K., Nair, P. K., & Ragavan, N. A. (2016). Does higher education service quality
affect student satisfaction, image, and loyalty? A study of international students in Malaysian public
universities. Quality Assurance in Education, 24(1), 70-94.
3. Alsharari, N. M. (2018). Internationalization of the higher education system: An interpretive analysis.
International Journal of Educational Management, 32(3), 359-381.
4. Amaghouss, J., & Zouine, M. (2022). A critical analysis of the governance of the Moroccan education
system in the era of online education. In Socioeconomic Inclusion During an Era of Online Education,156-
176. IGI Global.
5. Amzat, I. H., Najimdeen, A. H. A., Walters, L. M., Yusuf, B., & Padilla-Valdez, N. (2023). Determining
service quality indicators to recruit and retain international students in Malaysian higher education
institutions: Global issues and local challenges. Sustainability, 15(8), 6643.
6. Antoninis, M., Alcott, B., Al Hadheri, S., April, D., Fouad Barakat, B., Barrios Rivera, M., ... & Weill, E.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
Page 8559
www.rsisinternational.org
(2023). Global Education Monitoring Report 2023: Technology in education: A tool on whose terms?
7. Ahmad, S. Z., & Buchanan, F. R. (2016). Motivation factors in students' decision to study at international
branch campuses in Malaysia. Studies in Higher Education, 41(6), 1076–1091.
8. Arah, O. A., Ogbu, U. C., & Okeke, C. E. (2008). Too poor to leave, too rich to stay: Developmental and
global health correlates of physician migration to the United States, Canada, Australia, and the United
Kingdom. American Journal of Public Health, 98(1), 148-154.
9. Barrionuevo Bonini, B. (2021). Fee-paying international masters’ students in Finland: Challenges,
resilience, support, and the COVID-19 pandemic (Master's thesis, B. Barrionuevo Bonini).
10. Bempechat, J., & Shernoff, D. J. (2012). Parental influences on achievement motivation and student
engagement. In Handbook of Research on Student Engagement (pp. 315-342). Springer US.
11. Brooks, R., & Waters, J. (2022). Partial, hierarchical, and stratified space? Understanding ‘the
international’ in studies of international student mobility. Oxford Review of Education, 48(4), 518-535.
12. Bustos-Orosa, M. A., & Symaco, L. P. (2024). Higher education in the Philippines: Issues and challenges.
Higher Education in Southeast Asia, 49, 91-102.
13. Cheong, J. Q., & Narayanan, S. (2021). Factors affecting the transition from university to work in selected
Malaysian cities: Is a public university degree a disadvantage? Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 41(1),
39-54.
14. Cheong, K. C., Hill, C., Fernandez-Chung, R., & Leong, Y. C. (2016). Employing the ‘unemployable’:
Employer perceptions of Malaysian graduates. Studies in Higher Education, 41(12), 2253-2270.
15. Crumley-Effinger, M. (2024). ISM policy pervasion: Visas, study permits, and the international student
experience. Journal of International Students, 14(1), 78-96.
16. Dimmock, C. (2020). Connecting research and knowledge on educational leadership in the West and Asia:
Adopting a cross-cultural comparative perspective. Comparative Education, 56(2), 257-277.
17. De Wit, H., & Altbach, P. G. (2021). Internationalization in higher education: Global trends and
recommendations for its future. Policy Reviews in Higher Education, 5(1), 28-46.
18. De Wit, H., & Deca, L. (2020). Internationalization of higher education, challenges and opportunities for
the next decade. In European Higher Education Area: Challenges for a New Decade, 3-11.
19. Elugbaju, W. K., Okeke, N. I., & Alabi, O. A. (2024). Conceptual framework for enhancing decision-
making in higher education through data-driven governance. Global Journal of Advanced Research and
Reviews, 2(02), 016-030.
20. Fakunle, O. A. (2019). International student perceptions on studying abroad and developing employability
during a UK Masters.
21. Ghasemy, M., Hussin, S., Megat Daud, M. A. K., Md Nor, M., Ghavifekr, S., & Kenayathulla,H. B. (2018).
Issues in Malaysian higher education: A quantitative representation of the top five priorities, values,
challenges, and solutions from the viewpoints of academic leaders. SAGE Open, 8(1), 2158244018755839.
22. Glass, C. R., & Cruz, N. I. (2023). Moving towards multipolarity: Shifts in the core-periphery structure of
international student mobility and world rankings (2000–2019). Higher Education, 85(2), 415-435.
23. Gomez, E. T., Cheong, K. C., & Wong, C. Y. (2021). Regime changes, state-business ties and remaining
in the middle-income trap: The case of Malaysia. Journal of Contemporary Asia, 51(5), 782-802.
24. Goodwin, K., & Mbah, M. (2019). Enhancing the work placement experience of international students:
Towards a support framework. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 43(4), 521-532.
25. Gutema, D. M., Pant, S., & Nikou, S. (2024). Exploring key themes and trends in international student
mobility research—A systematic literature review. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education,
16(3), 843-861.
26. Hoo, Q. C., Zainal, S. R. M., & Chai, G. E. (2014). Return intentions of Malaysia’s diaspora: The push
and pull factors. Case Studies in Business and Management, 1(1), 140.
27. Hu, C., Wotipka, C. M., & Wen, W. (2016). International students in Chinese higher education: Choices,
expectations, and experiences by region of origin. In Global Perspectives and Local Challenges
Surrounding International Student Mobility, 153-178. IGI Global.
28. Jackson, D., Riebe, L., & Macau, F. (2022). Determining factors in graduate recruitment and preparing
students for success. Education+ Training, 64(5), 681-699.
29. Jacob, W. J., Neubauer, D., & Ye, H. (2018). Financing trends in Southeast Asia and Oceania: Meeting
the demands of regional higher education growth. International Journal of Educational Development, 58,
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
Page 8560
www.rsisinternational.org
47-63.
30. Jafar, H., & Legusov, O. (2021). Understanding the decision-making process of college-bound
international students: A case study of greater Toronto area colleges of applied arts and technology.
Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 45(7), 463-478.
31. Johnson, K. A. (2018). 9/11 and international student visa issuance. Journal of Studies in International
Education, 22(5), 393-413.
32. Kankhuni, Z., & Ngwira, C. (2019). Exploring the relationship between travel motivations and preferred
tourist attractions: A case of New Zealand and the United Kingdom.
33. Khanal, J., & Gaulee, U. (2019). Challenges of international students from pre-departure to post-study: A
literature review. Journal of International Students, 9(2), 560- 581.
34. Knight, J. (2014). Three generations of cross-border higher education: New developments, issues and
challenges. In Internationalisation of Higher Education and Global Mobility (pp. 23, 43-58).
35. Lee, K. H., & Shutler, M. C. (2024). Understanding Sino-Singapore educational exchanges: International
student mobility and cross-border knowledge production. Asian Population Studies, 1-16.
36. Li, J., Xue, E., Wei, Y., & Guo, Y. (2023). Interactive effects and mediating roles of multiple factors that
influence learning adaptive growth of international students: Evidence from China. Behavioral Sciences,
13(8), 682.
37. Li, M., & Bray, M. (2007). Cross-border flows of students for higher education: Push-pull factors and
motivations of mainland Chinese students in Hong Kong and Macau. Higher Education, 53(6), 791–818.
38. Luong, P. M., Tran, L. T., Nguyen, H. T., Tran, Y. T. H., Dang, G. H., & Vu, T. V. (2024).
39. Intercultural adaptability development for students in internationalisation at home programmes in higher
education in China and Korea. Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning.
40. Lu, W., & Everson Härkälä, T. (2024). International student experience of employment integration in
Finland. Research in Comparative and International Education, 19(2), 133-152.
41. Menon, J. (2014). Growth without private investment: What happened in Malaysia and can it be fixed?
Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 19(2), 247-271.
42. Neeley, T. B. (2013). Language matters: Status loss and achieved status distinctions in global
organizations. Organization Science, 24(2), 476-497.
43. Ndomo, Q., Bontenbal, I., & Lillie, N. A. (2023). Essential? COVID-19 and highly educated Africans in
Finland’s segmented labour market. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 43(3/4), 339-
355.
44. Noor, N. M., & Leong, C. H. (2013). Multiculturalism in Malaysia and Singapore: contesting models.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 37(6), 714-726.
45. Nieveen, N., & Plomp, T. (2018). Curricular and implementation challenges in introducing twenty-first
century skills in education. In Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century Skills: Research and Applications,
259-276.
46. Onileowo, T. T., Muharam, F. M., & Ramliy, M. K. (2022). COVID-19's impact on tertiary institutions in
Nigeria and its effects on the economy. In Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Cross-Border Trade and
Business (pp. 252-269). IGI Global.
47. Onileowo, T. T., Muharam, F. M., & Ramily, M. K. (2022). Financial Structure and Business Development
in Southwest Nigeria. Journal of Hunan University Natural Sciences, 49(10)
48. Onileowo, T. T. (2024). Exploring the Influence of Government Policy on Entrepreneurship Development.
British Journal of Multidisciplinary and Advanced Studies, 5(1), 198-211.
49. Pawar, S. K., & Chanda, R. S. (2024). Motivations of Indian students to pursue a STEM Master’s program
abroad: Insights from a qualitative study. Cogent Education, 11(1), 2378275.
50. Pedro, F., Subosa, M., Rivas, A., & Valverde, P. (2019). Artificial intelligence in education: Challenges
and opportunities for sustainable development.
51. Rambe, P., & Moeti, M. (2017). Disrupting and democratising higher education provision or entrenching
academic elitism: towards a model of MOOCs adoption at African universities. Educational Technology
Research and Development, 65(3), 631- 651.
52. Ratchatakulpat, T., Yongyingprasert, W., & Wadeecharoen, W. (2018). The factors affecting international
tourist perspective on destination satisfaction: The case of United Kingdom and Australia tourists visiting
in Thailand.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.51584/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025
Page 8561
www.rsisinternational.org
53. Sahin, A. (2018). Critical issues in Islamic education studies: Rethinking Islamic and Western liberal
secular values of education. Religions, 9(11), 335.
54. Shahijan, M. K., Rezaei, S., & Preece, C. N. (2016). Developing a framework of internationalisation for
higher education institutions in Malaysia: A SWOT analysis. International Journal of Management in
Education, 10(2), 145-173.
55. Singh, S. P. (2024). Changing scenario of globalization and internationalization of higher education:
Recent trends of students’ mobility and causes. University News, 62, 154.
56. Smit, R. (2012). Towards a clearer understanding of student disadvantage in higher education:
Problematising deficit thinking. Higher Education Research & Development, 31(3), 369-380.
57. Staniscia, B., Deravignone, L., González-Martín, B., & Pumares, P. (2021). Youth mobility and the
development of human capital: is there a Southern European model?. Journal of Ethnic and Migration
Studies, 47(8), 1866-1882.
58. Steagall, J. W., Falk, P., Gallo, A., & Porter, T. W. (2021). International double degree programs as
accelerators for internationalization: Lessons from the Trans- Atlantic Business School Alliance. Journal
of Teaching in International Business, 32(1), 7-35.
59. Tang, L., & Zhang, C. A. (2023). Global research on international students’ intercultural adaptation in a
foreign context: A visualized bibliometric analysis of the scientific landscape. SAGE Open, 13(4),
21582440231218849.
60. Teichler, U. (2017). Internationalisation trends in higher education and the changing role of international
student mobility. Journal of International Mobility, 4, 177-216.
61. Thun, B. (2018). How developmental states promote growth? Case studies from South Korea, Singapore,
and China.
62. Urban, E. L., & Palmer, L. B. (2014). International students as a resource for internationalization of higher
education. Journal of Studies in International Education, 18(4), 305-324.
63. Voogt, J., & Roblin, N. P. (2012). A comparative analysis of international frameworks for 21st century
competences: Implications for national curriculum policies. Journal of curriculum studies, 44(3), 299-321.
64. Wan, C. D., & Abdullah, D. (2021). Internationalisation of Malaysian higher education: Policies, practices
and the SDGs. International Journal of Comparative Education and Development, 23(3), 212-226.
65. Wilkins, S. (2016). Transnational higher education in the 21st century. Journal of studies in international
education, 20(1), 3-7.
66. Wilson, S., Hastings, C., Morris, A., Ramia, G., & Mitchell, E. (2023). International students on the edge:
The precarious impacts of financial stress. Journal of Sociology, 59(4), 952-974.
67. Xu, X. (2023). Reconceptualizing international student mobility: A multipolar structure lens.Journal of
International Students, 13(2), i-iv.
68. Xiaotong, S., Aziz, N. A., Hamzah, L. M., Yue, N., & Changli, Y. (2024). Enhancing educational
management for international students in China's post-pandemic era. Educational Administration: Theory
and Practice, 30(4), 5660-5673.
69. Yang, P. (2022). China in the global field of international student mobility: An analysis of economic,
human and symbolic capitals. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 52(2),
308-326.
70. Yang, P., & Tian, Y. (2023). International student mobility in a deglobalizing and post- pandemic world:
Resilience, reconfiguration, renewal. Journal of International Students, 13(1), i-v.
71. Zhang, F., & Zhou, M. (2018). Factors affecting Chinese students’ choice of studying in Sweden.
