This paper explores homologous structures as a point of dialogue between evolutionary biology and Islamic

thought. While evolution interprets these similarities as evidence of common ancestry, Islamic perspective views

them as signs of Divine unity and wisdom. Drawing on the works of Darwin, Paley and Rasail Ikhwan al-Safa,

the paper puts homology within the context of epistemological pluralism. It proposes that science and faith, when

approached holistically, are not in conflict but rather offer harmonising insights into creation.

structures

The relationship between Islam and the theory of evolution has long been the centre of scholarly and theological

The objective of this paper is to explore how the Islamic perspective interprets homologous structures as

reflections of Divine unity, thereby demonstrating a profound harmony between science and faith.

Darwin (1859) placed homologous structures as evidence of shared ancestry and evolutionary processes. While

compelling scientifically, this view leaves out acknowledging Allah Ta’ala as the Creator, which raises concerns

for Islamic thought. Important sources like Rasail Ikhwan al-Safa and the teachings of the Duat Kiram

that the order and similarity in nature point directly to the Divine wisdom. Hence, homologous structures can be

seen as both biological evidence and signs of Divine intervention, as well as a manifestation of unity in diversity.

The challenge lies in reconciling these perspectives so that scientific explanations are not seen as a threat to faith,

locomotion, a bat for flight, and humans utilise their arms for tasks such as cooking, writing and driving. Although

these appendages perform distinct functions, they share a deep structural similarity. Each begins with a long bone

(the humerus) extending from the shoulder, followed by two parallel bones (the radius and ulna) that connect to

the elbow. This structure ends in a cluster of wrist bones and five digits (Carroll, 1997).

is elongated. Nonetheless, the consistent arrangement of these skeletal elements across taxa underscores the

diverse species (Hall, 2007). Similarly, Al-Jahiz approached animal classification scientifically, arranging them

in a linear series from the simplest to the most complex. He grouped them based on similarities and further divided

them into sub-groups to identify the ultimate unit within the species. This approach paralleled Carolus Linnaeus’s

from similar function without common ancestry. Later, advances in genetics and molecular biology expanded the

concept of homology beyond anatomy to include genetic and developmental similarities. For example, Mayr

(1982) emphasised the role of evolutionary mechanisms in shaping homologous traits, while Hall (2007)

demonstrated how evolutionary developmental biology, ‘evo-devo’, explains the genetic and embryological

foundations of homologous structures across species. Together, these contributions deepened and broadened

Darwin’s original insights, confirming homology as a central concept in evolutionary theory.

Figure 1: Humans, seals, and bats use their limbs for different purposes, yet their bone numbers and

Reference: Zimmer, C., & Emlen, D. J. (2016). Evolution: Making sense of life (2nd ed.). W. H. Freeman and

Furthermore, Darwin’s insight that homologies are often most visible in embryonic stages has been confirmed

by modern evolutionary biology. As Zimmer and Emlen (2016) explain, vertebrate embryos share common

developmental structures, such as pharyngeal arches, that later differentiate into very different adult features,

including gills in fish or components of the jaw and ear in mammals. This pattern suggests that embryonic

similarities reflect a shared ancestry, with subsequent modification shaping species-specific traits. Building on

Reference: Zimmer, C., & Emlen, D. J. (2016). Evolution: Making sense of life (2nd ed.). W. H. Freeman and

Company.

If one leans on epistemological pluralism in understanding that there is not just one way of knowing or making

sense of the world (Alcoff, 2007). It allows us to explore alternative and meaningful insights. That is, one may

also conclude from the homologous structures that Allah Ta’ala has created living organisms in a fascinating

variety of forms, but without exception, all the creatures of this vast and varied living world have similarities.

elaborated from a philosophical standpoint, such order and harmony suggest that nature operates with purpose

and direction, not by chance. Just as two scripts written by the same individual can be recognised by their

Acknowledging the creator is precisely the direction toward which Imam Ahmed al-Mastur

guides the readers

in Rasail Ikhwan al-Safa. He states:



He explains that the intricate harmony found in creation, from the structure of plants to the diversity of their

forms, colours and fruits, serves as clear evidence of a Creator. He further argues that such an order cannot arise

from the mere interaction of opposing elements without deliberate intent and purpose.

Similarly, Robert Hooke (1665), assistant to Thomas Willis and later a physicist, argued that God furnished each

clear function, would immediately suggest intentional design. For Paley, the complexity and purposeful

arrangement of biological structures similarly indicated the work of a Divine Creator.

Paley extended this analogy by cataloguing anatomical structures that displayed remarkable complexity and

functionality. He argued that, just as a watch implies a watchmaker, the intricate design of life implies a Creator.

For instance, he compared the human eye to a telescope, both of which rely on the same physical laws to focus

light through lenses (Paley, 1802).

Likewise, Imam Ahmad al-Mastur

creature with structures that are perfectly suited to its needs and environment. In Rasail Ikhwan al-Safa, he states:

be able to carry out the diverse range of daily activities that require strength and skill, such as lifting, grasping,

appear as a mere anatomical difference is, in fact, a manifestation of divine wisdom: ensuring that each species

can prosper and benefit within its domain. As Behe (1996) argues, biological systems exhibit complexity,

meaning that each part of a structure is essential and cannot be removed without rendering the whole non-

functional. This implies that organs and faculties are never superfluous but are precisely arranged for purpose, a

view that aligns with the Ikhwan al-Safa’s principle that Allah Ta’ala’s wisdom grants no creature an organ it

does not need.

Whereas Paley saw complexity as direct evidence of divine craftsmanship, Dawkins insisted that evolution by

cumulative selection explains how small, gradual changes accumulate into sophisticated biological structures. In

his view, the apparent design in nature is an illusion generated by blind evolutionary processes rather than

intentional creation. This contrast illustrates the ongoing tension between theological interpretations of natural

order and scientific accounts of evolutionary mechanisms.

science and faith are not in conflict but in harmony. Scientific discoveries, rather than undermining faith, unveil

dimensions already encompassed within it. Any perceived contradiction stems from human misunderstanding or

misinterpretation of science. In reality, science serves to deepen and reinforce one’s faith.

Syedna al-Dai al-Ajal

highlights the essential qualities one should possess while contemplating the creation.

Imam Ahmed al-Mastur

expounds those qualities in Rasail Ikhwan al-Safa. He states:



8. Dawkins, R. (1986). The blind watchmaker: Why the evidence of evolution reveals a universe without

9. Hall, B. K. (2007). Homology: The hierarchical basis of comparative biology. Academic Press.

10. Hooke, R. (1665/2013). Micrographia. Courier Corporation. (Original work published 1665)

11. Imam Ahmed al-Mastur