INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025  
Integrating Spatial Intelligence and Public Health Perspectives in  
Addressing Urban Air Pollution in Malaysia: A GIS-Based  
Environmental Assessment  
Fateen Nabilla Rasli,*, Siti Rahmah Rashid  
Center for Research in Development, Social and Environment (SEEDS), Faculty of Social Sciences &  
Humanities, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor  
*Corresponding Author  
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000707  
Received: 02 November 2025; Accepted: 10 November 2025; Published: 21 November 2025  
ABSTRACT  
This study investigates the relationship between climate change and respiratory health in Cheras, Kuala  
Lumpur, a rapidly urbanising district facing growing environmental stress from pollution and temperature rise.  
Climate change, driven by both natural and anthropogenic factors, has intensified urban heat, altered rainfall  
patterns, and worsened air quality, threatening public health. Using a mixed-methods approach combining field  
observation, secondary data analysis, and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) mapping, this research  
examined the interaction between temperature, humidity, and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) with respiratory  
disease incidence. Data were obtained from the Malaysian Meteorological Department (MET Malaysia), World  
Air Quality Index (WAQI), and Cheras District Health Office. Results revealed a marked deterioration in air  
quality between 2021 and 2023, with PM2.5 concentrations rising from 54.68 µg/m³ to 65.34 µg/m³, shifting  
from “Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups” to “Unhealthy” levels. Although air pollution worsened, influenza  
cases dropped from 1,240 (2021) to 32 (2023), likely influenced by post-COVID-19 behavioural changes such  
as mask usage and hygiene awareness. It should be noted that the 2021 data represent full-year health records,  
whereas the 2023 data cover only a single epidemiological week. This mismatch limits direct comparability  
and trend interpretation across years. GIS spatial analysis confirmed that pollution hotspots corresponded with  
high-density traffic and industrial zones, validating a strong link between air quality and respiratory  
vulnerability. The findings underscore the urgent need for sustainable urban policies, including stricter  
emission controls, expansion of urban green zones, and integrated air-health monitoring systems. Ultimately,  
this study highlights how rapid urban development and inadequate environmental management accelerate  
respiratory health risks, calling for a shift toward long-term, data-driven climate resilience strategies in  
Malaysia’s urban planning framework.  
Keywords-Air pollution; Public health; GIS; PM2.5; Urban resilience; Malaysia  
INTRODUCTION  
Climate change is a major global challenge affecting multiple aspects of human life, including public health.  
Rising global temperatures, changing weather patterns, and increasing air pollution are particularly concerning  
in rapidly urbanizing areas such as Kuala Lumpur. As Malaysia’s economic hub, the city faces serious  
environmental challenges, heatwaves, flash floods, and declining air quality which all contribute to worsening  
health outcomes.  
Climate change refers to long-term alterations in elements such as temperature, rainfall, and wind patterns,  
caused by both natural and human activities (EPA, 2012). Natural causes include variations in Earth’s orbit,  
solar radiation, and volcanic activity, while human activities such as industrialization, deforestation, and  
burning of fossil fuels accelerate the process (Aerts et al., 2018). Globally, climate change has triggered  
extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, hurricanes, and heatwaves like the deadly 2003 European  
heatwave that broke temperature records across Spain, France, and Germany (Botkin & Keller, 2005).  
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One of the most affected areas of public health is respiratory health. Airborne pollutants such as PM2.5,  
greenhouse gases, and other harmful emissions from urban development and vehicle use have been linked to  
diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). In Kuala Lumpur,  
recurring haze episodes often caused by open burning in the region worsen air quality and respiratory risks.  
Studying this connection is essential to design effective mitigation and adaptation policies to protect public  
wellbeing.  
Malaysia is already experiencing the consequences of climate change: rising temperatures, unpredictable  
rainfall, and more frequent extreme weather. In major urban centers like Kuala Lumpur, air pollution poses a  
serious threat to health, particularly in densely populated areas such as Cheras. As the nation’s capital, Kuala  
Lumpur suffers from heavy traffic, industrial activities, and open burning all contributing to poor air quality.  
Climate change exacerbates this through increased temperatures and humidity, which facilitate the formation  
of ground-level ozone and fine particles (PM2.5, PM10) that irritate the respiratory system. Cheras, being one  
of the most populated urban districts, faces daily emissions from vehicles and industrial zones, releasing  
pollutants like carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂). Seasonal haze episodes further worsen the  
situation, especially during dry periods.  
Research consistently shows a strong link between air pollution and respiratory diseases. For example, Brauer  
et al. (2002) found that children exposed to traffic-related air pollution in the Netherlands were more likely to  
suffer from coughing, wheezing, asthma, and impaired lung function. Similarly, residents of Cheras  
particularly children, the elderly, and those with pre-existing conditions are at higher risk due to sustained  
exposure to poor air quality and rising temperatures.  
This study, therefore, aims to examine the relationship between climate change and respiratory health among  
Cheras residents, exploring how factors such as temperature, humidity, and air quality contribute to health  
outcomes and identifying possible mitigation and adaptation strategies.  
Kuala Lumpur, particularly Cheras, is increasingly exposed to extreme weather events, worsening air  
pollution, and temperature rise due to climate change. These conditions threaten public health, especially  
respiratory health. Urban congestion, industrial emissions, and open burning generate pollutants such as  
nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (Wjist et al., 1993), which lead to  
respiratory illnesses like asthma, influenza, bronchitis, and chronic respiratory diseases. Heatwaves also  
heighten the formation of ground-level ozone, which damages lung tissue and aggravates breathing problems  
particularly among vulnerable groups.  
Despite growing evidence on the health impacts of climate change, there remains a lack of localised data in  
Malaysia linking climate variables (temperature, humidity, pollution) directly to respiratory health outcomes.  
This knowledge gap hinders effective policy development and mitigation planning.  
Study Area  
This study focuses on Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, a high-density metropolitan area facing severe air pollution due  
to rapid urbanization, industrial activities, and heavy traffic. The research will analyze environmental and  
health data to understand the local dynamics between climate variables and respiratory health, aiming to  
inform future urban and health policies for sustainable city management.  
Figure 1: Study Area of Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia  
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This study was conducted in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia’s primary urban and economic hub, with a particular  
focus on the district of Cheras. As one of the city’s fastest-growing areas, Cheras is densely populated and  
characterized by a tropical climate, with average daily temperatures ranging from 26°C to 33°C and  
consistently high humidity. The community is ethnically diverse, comprising mainly Malay, Chinese, and  
Indian residents. Its economy is driven by commerce, services, and small-scale industries, with major shopping  
centers such as Cheras Leisure Mall and Sunway Velocity serving as key commercial nodes. The area also  
offers essential public amenities, including schools, hospitals, and parks, which contribute to residents’ quality  
of life. However, Cheras faces increasing environmental stress due to climate change impacts such as  
heatwaves, flash floods, and air pollution. Heavy traffic, industrial activities, and frequent open burning have  
led to poor air quality, while its topography comprising both hilly and low-lying zones at an elevation of about  
74 meters tends to trap pollutants. Consequently, residents, especially children and the elderly, are highly  
vulnerable to respiratory illnesses, making Cheras an ideal location for studying the relationship between  
climate change and respiratory health.  
METHODOLOGY  
Data Collection Methods  
Primary Data - Field Observation  
Field observations were conducted at strategic locations in Cheras to record environmental factors related to air  
quality. The selected sites included residential areas near highways with heavy traffic, such as Bandar Tun  
Razak, located close to hospitals and schools, and Cheras Perdana, which has small industrial zones and open  
burning activities that may contribute to air pollution. Observations focused on traffic density, open burning  
activities, and the presence of industrial areas that potentially emit pollutants. These were carried out during  
peak traffic hours and under extreme weather conditions to ensure that the data reflected real environmental  
situations. Although no specific instruments such as particulate matter (PM2.5) or surface temperature sensors  
were used, the observations supported the secondary data analysis obtained from official agencies. Recorded  
data included the presence of smoke, odour, dust, and the frequency of open burning to assess the extent of air  
pollution and its possible effects on residents’ health.  
Secondary Data  
Secondary data were essential in understanding the relationship between climate change and respiratory health  
in Kuala Lumpur. Two main datasets were used: climate data and health data, collected from the Malaysian  
Meteorological Department (MET Malaysia) and health institutions such as hospitals and public clinics.  
Climate Data:  
Climatic parameters such as temperature, humidity, rainfall, and concentrations of particulate matter (PM2.5,  
PM10) were gathered from agencies like the Meteorological Department and the World Air Quality Index  
(WAQI) website (https://waqi.info). These indicators are critical in assessing respiratory health impacts. High  
temperatures and low humidity increase respiratory risks, while fine particulate pollution is linked to asthma  
and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Data were collected daily across a two- to five-year  
period to identify trends in air quality and climate variability. Seasonal variations, such as haze during  
monsoon months caused by transboundary burning, were also analysed.  
Health Data:  
Health data were obtained from hospitals, clinics, and public health centres in Kuala Lumpur. They included  
records of respiratory diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, influenza, upper respiratory infections, and COPD,  
along with patient demographics (age, gender) and diagnosis information. These data were compared with  
climatic variables to explore correlations, for example, between higher PM2.5 concentrations and increased  
hospital admissions for influenza. The Weekly Epidemiological Bulletin (ME 35/2023) from the Cheras  
District Health Office under the Ministry of Health (MOH) provided official statistics on Influenza-Like Illness  
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(ILI), including total reported cases, consultation rates, and laboratory test results for respiratory infections  
such as Influenza A. This comprehensive dataset enabled the study to evaluate how air pollution and weather  
fluctuations affect urban respiratory health and to provide scientific evidence for public health interventions  
and environmental policy. However, while 2021 health data represent full-year records, the 2023 dataset covers  
only one epidemiological week. This temporal discrepancy was explicitly considered in the interpretation of  
findings to avoid overgeneralisation.  
Data Analysis Methods  
The study employed an integrated analytical approach combining statistical and geospatial methods to assess  
how climate parameters temperature, humidity, and Air Quality Index (AQI) influence respiratory disease  
incidence in Kuala Lumpur. Two main tools were utilised: Microsoft Excel for statistical analysis and  
Geographical Information System (GIS) for spatial mapping.  
Microsoft Excel:  
Excel served as the primary platform for managing and analysing raw data from hospitals, health agencies, and  
environmental monitoring stations. Patient records were organised by location, disease type, admission date,  
age, and gender. Climate data such as temperature, humidity, and PM2.5 concentration were also integrated.  
Descriptive analyses including mean, median, and frequency distributions were performed to identify initial  
trends in disease occurrence. Graphical tools such as bar charts, pie charts, and histograms provided visual  
insights prior to spatial mapping. Excel also facilitated data conversion into GIS-compatible formats (e.g.  
CSV) for further geospatial analysis.  
GIS Mapping:  
GIS mapping complemented the statistical findings by visualising high-risk zones for respiratory diseases.  
Health data were spatially overlaid with climate variables (temperature, humidity, PM2.5) to generate risk  
maps showing areas of elevated disease prevalence. For instance, urban zones with heavy traffic exhibited  
higher respiratory disease rates due to elevated particulate concentrations, while low-lying areas prone to flash  
floods showed increased respiratory infections linked to water and air pollution. GIS enabled identification of  
geographic patterns and environmental linkages, providing valuable tools for public health planning. High-risk  
zones could be prioritised for interventions such as free respiratory check-ups or air quality awareness  
campaigns. The maps also guided policymakers in enforcing emission control measures in critical areas, such  
as industrial or traffic-dense zones. In summary, this study’s data collection and analysis framework combined  
field observation, climatic and health data, and statistical-GIS integration to provide a comprehensive  
understanding of how climate change impacts respiratory health in Cheras, Kuala Lumpur. This evidence-  
based approach supports targeted environmental and health policy development for Malaysia’s urban  
populations.  
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS  
Summary of Field Observation and Findings in Cheras, Kuala Lumpur  
The first objective of this study was to identify climate change patterns in Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, and assess  
their impact on local air quality. Cheras was chosen due to its rapid urbanisation, high population density, and  
extensive infrastructure development, all of which contribute to rising local temperatures and worsening air  
pollution. The study used indirect field observations, conducted in April 2025, to document visible  
environmental changes, focusing on traffic congestion, land use, and green space distribution. Data were  
collected through visual assessments and photography at several strategic sites, comparing shaded and open  
areas to determine differences in temperature and air quality.  
The field observations revealed a clear contrast between built-up areas and open spaces. Highly developed  
zones with extensive paved surfaces roads, car parks, and high-rise buildings, recorded noticeably higher  
temperatures than open, less-developed areas. This pattern illustrates the urban heat island effect, where  
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concrete and asphalt absorb solar radiation and release heat, increasing ambient temperatures. Heavy traffic  
during peak hours was observed as a major contributor to air pollution, with significant emissions of carbon  
dioxide (CO₂), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and fine particulate matter (PM2.5). The findings support the  
hypothesis that rapid development and dense traffic directly degrade air quality and elevate health risks.  
Figure 2: Cheras area captured on 12th April 2025  
Photographic documentation of Figure 2 from commercial and residential zones in Cheras captured scenes of  
intense traffic, compact infrastructure, and a lack of vegetation. Despite clear skies, the scarcity of trees and  
green spaces exacerbates heat retention and restricts natural ventilation, reinforcing the urban heat island  
phenomenon. The imbalance between physical development and ecological planning has created microclimatic  
shifts that heighten exposure to air pollutants, especially among vulnerable populations such as children and  
the elderly.  
The analysis concludes that Cheras is experiencing a distinct microclimate transformation marked by  
increasing surface temperatures and declining air quality driven by land-use changes, reduced vegetation, and  
vehicular emissions. These localised climatic shifts contribute not only to discomfort and health problems,  
including respiratory illnesses, but also to broader patterns of environmental degradation. Sustainable urban  
planning measures, such as improved traffic management, expansion of green infrastructure, and stricter  
control of vehicle emissions, are therefore crucial to mitigating ongoing air pollution and preserving public  
health in rapidly urbanising districts like Cheras.  
Secondary Data Analysis of Climate Change and Air Quality in Cheras  
This section analyses secondary climate and air quality data in Cheras, focusing on comparative trends  
between 2021 and 2023. The data, obtained from the Air Quality Index (AQI) website and meteorological  
sources, demonstrate how environmental changes and post-pandemic human activity have influenced air  
conditions and potential health risks in Kuala Lumpur’s urban landscape.  
Comparison of Air Quality Index (AQI)  
Figure 3: Monthly average PM2.5 concentrations in Cheras for 2021–2023, illustrating seasonal variability  
and post-pandemic rebound effects.  
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The average annual PM2.5 concentration in Cheras increased markedly between 2021 and 2023, as shown by  
AQI readings in Figure 3. In 2021, the PM2.5 average stood at 54.68 µg/m³, categorised as “Unhealthy for  
Sensitive Groups.” However, by 2023, the concentration rose to 65.34 µg/m³, placing it in the “Unhealthy”  
category. This escalation of nearly 10.66 µg/m³ within two years signifies a substantial decline in air quality.  
The deterioration is likely due to intensified urban activities following the COVID-19 recovery phase,  
including increased traffic flow, rapid infrastructure expansion, and hotter, drier microclimatic conditions that  
concentrate fine particulate matter. Prolonged exposure to PM2.5 is medically linked to respiratory illnesses  
such as asthma, bronchitis, and upper respiratory tract infections, particularly in densely populated zones like  
Cheras where vehicular emissions dominate the urban environment.  
Annual Maximum Temperature Trends  
The average annual maximum temperature showed a marginal decrease, from 32.12°C in 2021 to 32.09°C in  
2023, a statistically insignificant difference of 0.03°C. Despite the slight variation, the consistently high  
temperatures above 32°C confirm the persistence of intense urban heat in Cheras.  
High ambient temperatures accelerate photochemical reactions that generate ground-level ozone and enhance  
the suspension of pollutants such as PM2.5. This interaction between heat and pollution heightens respiratory  
risks. The minimal dip in 2023 temperatures may partially reflect the indirect effects of the COVID-19  
pandemic, when industrial and transportation activities were drastically curtailed in 2021. Nevertheless, the  
return of full economic activity in 2023 restored the stable pattern of elevated temperatures, reinforcing the  
relationship between human mobility, urban heat dynamics, and pollution levels.  
Annual Minimum Temperature Trends  
Similarly, the average minimum temperature recorded a negligible decline from 23.71°C in 2021 to 23.67°C in  
2023 (a 0.04°C difference). Though statistically insignificant, this sustained nighttime warmth above 23°C  
indicates continuous urban heat island (UHI) effects. Elevated nighttime temperatures hinder the natural  
cooling cycle essential for human physiological recovery, disproportionately affecting the elderly and  
individuals with respiratory conditions.  
During 2021’s lockdowns, reduced vehicular and industrial emissions may have temporarily alleviated urban  
heat accumulation. However, as commercial and social activities resumed, minimum temperatures stabilised at  
high levels, underscoring persistent anthropogenic heat retention and its potential impact on thermal comfort  
and respiratory well-being.  
Annual Average Humidity  
Average humidity in Cheras decreased slightly from 80.05% (2021) to 79.97% (2023), a marginal 0.08% drop.  
While statistically minor, these values indicate consistently high humidity, a typical characteristic of  
Malaysia’s equatorial climate. Sustained humidity above 79% can influence thermal discomfort and exacerbate  
respiratory stress. High moisture content in the air reduces the body’s ability to cool through perspiration,  
intensifying heat stress among urban populations.  
Furthermore, prolonged humidity fosters microbial growth mould, bacteria, and allergens that worsen indoor  
air quality and trigger respiratory ailments such as asthma and influenza. The minor variation in humidity may  
also relate to broader climatic and anthropogenic shifts, including rainfall fluctuations and post-pandemic  
increases in human activity. The Movement Control Order (MCO) in 2021 had temporarily suppressed  
emissions and vapour release, while renewed economic operations in 2023 likely restored atmospheric  
moisture to pre-pandemic equilibrium.  
The combined data suggest that while temperature and humidity fluctuations in Cheras between 2021 and 2023  
were minimal, air pollution indicators particularly PM2.5 showed a marked deterioration, signalling worsening  
environmental and health conditions. Elevated PM2.5 levels and persistent heat contribute synergistically to  
respiratory health risks, aggravating conditions such as asthma and COPD. The findings underscore the role of  
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urbanisation, motorisation, and limited green infrastructure in shaping Cheras’ microclimate. The city’s  
consistent exposure to high temperature, humidity, and particulate concentrations highlights the urgency for  
sustainable interventions. Measures such as improved air quality monitoring, stricter vehicle emission control,  
urban tree planting, and sustainable land-use planning are critical to mitigating air pollution and protecting  
public health in Kuala Lumpur’s rapidly urbanising districts.  
Air Quality and Respiratory Health in Cheras, Kuala Lumpur  
Air quality plays a critical role in determining the respiratory health of urban populations. High concentrations  
of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) particles smaller than 2.5 micrometres are known to aggravate respiratory  
illnesses such as influenza, asthma, and bronchitis. Comparative data from 2021 and 2023 in Cheras highlight  
variations in both air pollution and influenza cases, offering insights into how pollution levels correspond with  
health outcomes.  
Table 1: Comparison of PM2.5 Concentrations and Influenza Cases in Cheras (2021–2023)  
Year  
2021  
2023  
Average PM2.5 (µg/m³)  
Influenza Cases  
1240.0  
54.68  
65.34  
32.0  
According to the data, the average PM2.5 concentration rose from 54.68 µg/m³ in 2021 to 65.34 µg/m³ in  
2023, indicating a significant deterioration in air quality. Both readings fall within the “unhealthy for sensitive  
groups” range based on World Health Organization (WHO, 2016) standards, suggesting potential risks to  
vulnerable populations such as children, the elderly, and individuals with pre-existing respiratory conditions.  
This rise in pollution likely reflects increased post-pandemic urban activity, including higher traffic volume,  
industrial emissions, and construction.  
Figure 4: Comparison of PM2.5 Readings with Influenza Cases in Cheras  
However, the number of recorded influenza cases showed an unexpected trend: 1,240 cases in 2021 compared  
to only 32 cases in 2023. While the air quality worsened, influenza incidence sharply declined. This apparent  
contradiction diverges from findings by Dominici et al. (2006) and Gulliver et al. (2018), which reported a  
positive correlation between PM2.5 levels and respiratory illness rates.  
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Figure 5: Relationship between PM2.5 levels and influenza cases in Cheras (2021 vs 2023).  
Several contextual factors may explain this discrepancy. The data for 2021 represent a full-year total, while the  
2023 data cover only one epidemiological week (ME35/2023), creating a reporting imbalance. Moreover,  
public health interventions during the post-COVID-19 period including widespread mask use, social  
distancing, and heightened hygiene practices likely reduced the spread of airborne diseases. The behavioural  
changes that persisted after the pandemic contributed to lower infection rates despite higher pollution levels.  
In conclusion, while air pollution in Cheras worsened between 2021 and 2023, respiratory illness incidence did  
not increase correspondingly, suggesting that human behaviour, preventive measures, and data collection scope  
play pivotal roles in interpreting environmental health trends. To establish a more accurate relationship  
between air pollution and respiratory diseases, future research should employ consistent longitudinal datasets,  
incorporating weekly or monthly records across multiple years. This approach would clarify the long-term  
health impacts of PM2.5 exposure in Malaysia’s urban environments and guide more targeted public health  
and environmental policies.  
Spatial Analysis of the Relationship Between Air Quality and Respiratory Illness in Cheras  
To better understand the connection between air quality and respiratory health, spatial analysis maps of the Air  
Pollution Index (API) were developed for Cheras using data from 2021 and 2023. These maps visualised how  
pollution levels varied across different monitoring stations and how changes in human activity influenced  
environmental and health outcomes.  
Air Pollution Index (API) Map - 2021  
In 2021, air quality across Cheras was relatively moderate. Data collected from five monitoring stations which  
are Cheras, Cheras Baru, Sungai Besi, Salak Selatan, and Bandar Tun Razak, showed API readings between 68  
and 75, classified as “Moderate.” The highest value (75) was recorded in Cheras, while Cheras Baru registered  
the lowest (68).  
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Figure 6: Map of Air Pollution Index (API) Levels in Cheras, Kuala Lumpur for the Year 2021  
This relatively clean air quality coincided with the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown (Movement Control Order  
- MCO), during which Malaysia imposed strict restrictions on mobility, industrial operations, and non-essential  
economic sectors. The drastic reduction in vehicular traffic and factory emissions resulted in a notable decline  
in urban air pollutants such as PM2.5, PM10, CO, NO₂, SO₂, and O₃. Research by Kanniah et al. (2020)  
confirmed significant reductions in nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter concentrations in Malaysia’s urban  
centres during lockdown periods, with PM10 levels dropping by as much as 58%. Similarly, Mohd Nadzir et  
al. (2020) found that reduced industrial activity and heavy rainfall helped disperse atmospheric pollutants.  
Thus, 2021 reflected an exceptional, short-term improvement in urban air quality due to restricted human  
mobility rather than structural environmental reform. Even in a densely populated and rapidly urbanising area  
like Cheras, these temporary measures demonstrated that human activities especially transport and industrial  
output play a decisive role in determining air pollution intensity. Studies such as Ghahremanloo et al. (2021)  
also observed that reduced mobility during lockdowns substantially improved air quality across Malaysia’s  
cities.  
Air Pollution Index (API) Map - 2023  
By 2023, Cheras experienced a marked deterioration in air quality. Data from the same five monitoring stations  
revealed API readings ranging from 79 to 95, with all stations falling within the “Unhealthy” category as  
defined by Malaysia’s Department of Environment. The highest value, 95, was recorded at the Cheras station,  
followed by Salak Selatan (84), Sungai Besi (82), Cheras Baru (80), and Bandar Tun Razak (79).  
Figure 7: Map of Air Pollution Index (API) Levels in Cheras, Kuala Lumpur for the Year 2023  
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This deterioration is directly linked to the post-pandemic economic and social recovery. As all sectors  
reopened, traffic congestion and industrial emissions surged. The Department of Statistics Malaysia (2023) and  
Malaysian Highway Authority (2023) reported significant increases in vehicle density and construction  
activity, contributing to elevated levels of CO, NO₂, and PM2.5. Additionally, industrial plants and power  
stations resumed full-scale operations, producing higher volumes of greenhouse gases that intensified the  
urban heat island effect (Oke, 1982).  
These combined factors of vehicle exhaust, industrial emissions, and reduced natural ventilation due to dense  
building structures led to pollutant accumulation, particularly on hot, dry days. The lack of sufficient green  
infrastructure further worsened air stagnation. According to Seinfeld and Pandis (2016), global warming and  
limited atmospheric convection can trap pollutants in lower atmospheric layers, a condition amplified in high-  
density areas like Cheras. Urban development that replaces vegetation with concrete diminishes the city’s  
natural filtering capacity, as noted by Gill et al. (2007).  
CONCLUSION  
Key Findings  
The analysis revealed a significant environmental regression between 2021 and 2023, as air quality in Cheras  
shifted from moderate to unhealthy levels, with direct implications for public health. Urban air quality was  
found to be highly dependent on human activity patterns notably traffic congestion, industrial output, and land  
development intensity. The temporary improvement observed in 2021, during Malaysia’s COVID-19  
lockdown, demonstrated how quickly pollution levels can decline when emissions are curtailed. However, the  
return to unrestricted mobility and economic growth in 2023 reversed these gains, exposing vulnerable groups  
such as children, the elderly, and individuals with chronic respiratory diseases (asthma, COPD) to greater  
health risks. Spatial and temporal data further confirmed a strong correlation between pollution density and  
respiratory vulnerability across Cheras. Sustained exposure to high PM2.5 concentrations can exacerbate  
respiratory illnesses and contribute to long-term cardiovascular issues. These findings underscore the urgency  
of adopting sustainable urban management practices that balance development with environmental protection.  
POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS  
To advance sustainable air quality management in Malaysia’s urban areas, a multi-dimensional strategy is  
required one that transcends short-term or reactive measures. This includes enforcing stricter emission  
standards through comprehensive regulations for industrial and vehicular emissions to limit pollutants such as  
carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and PM2.5, supported by continuous monitoring, transparent  
reporting, and inter-agency coordination to ensure compliance and encourage investment in cleaner  
technologies. Strengthening green urban planning is equally crucial by integrating nature-based solutions such  
as urban forests, green corridors, and vertical gardens into city design to improve air filtration, mitigate heat  
islands, and enhance residents’ quality of life. Municipal policies should prioritise green zoning and incentivise  
developers to include environmental buffers and sustainable landscapes in new projects. Promoting sustainable  
mobility through low-emission transport options such as electric vehicles, cycling infrastructure, and efficient  
public transit systems can significantly reduce congestion, emissions, and associated health risks. Finally,  
implementing integrated monitoring systems that combine GIS-based pollution data with hospital health  
records would enable continuous air-health surveillance, allowing early identification of respiratory risk zones  
and more targeted public interventions. Collectively, these actions reinforce Malaysia’s broader commitment to  
carbon neutrality and urban climate resilience.  
Future Research Needs  
Future research should prioritise the development of longitudinal and harmonised datasets that integrate  
weekly or monthly health statistics with spatial pollution indicators. Such data consistency will enable more  
accurate analyses of causal relationships between air quality fluctuations and respiratory health outcomes.  
Moreover, exploring machine learning and GIS-based predictive models could enhance early warning systems  
for respiratory risks. Interdisciplinary collaboration among environmental scientists, urban planners, and public  
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025  
health experts will be key to designing data-driven, evidence-based interventions for sustainable city  
development.  
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS  
The authors acknowledge the empirical dataset and relevant national agencies (DOE, DOSM, MOH) for  
publicly available statistics and reporting frameworks. Authors also declares no conflict of interests while  
preparing this manuscript.  
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