In the context of China’s vocational education, English reading competence is crucial for accessing technical

comprehension compared to traditional instruction, with low- and medium-proficiency students showing the

greatest gains. High-proficiency students achieved modest improvements, highlighting the need for upward

differentiation. Qualitative findings reveal that appropriately leveled tasks, scaffolded support, and

collaborative learning enhanced confidence, motivation, and engagement across proficiency levels. The study

demonstrates that DI is not merely a remediation tool but a comprehensive instructional approach addressing

cognitive, motivational, and social dimensions of learning. Implications include the importance of teacher

training, tiered materials, and flexible grouping to foster equitable and effective vocational English education.

Limitations and directions for future research, including long-term retention and skill transfer, are discussed.

Keywords: Differentiated Instruction, Vocational Education, English Reading Skills

interpret instructions accurately, and communicate effectively in English-mediated environments. Despite the

national emphasis on English for practical use, vocational students in China continue to display substantial

disparities in English proficiency, motivation, and learning needs (Chuane et al., 2023). This heterogeneity

presents a persistent challenge to the traditional “one-size-fits-all” pedagogy still prevalent in many vocational

classrooms, which often assumes a uniform level of readiness and background knowledge among learners

(Zhang, 2024).

Unlike students in academic senior high schools, vocational learners typically enter with uneven educational

backgrounds and relatively low English proficiency. Many have experienced repeated academic setbacks or

disengagement during earlier schooling, resulting in limited vocabulary, underdeveloped reading strategies,

and low self-efficacy (Ma et al., 2024). Some students may have relied primarily on rote memorization rather

flexible, inclusive, and responsive to differences in students’ readiness, interests, and learning profiles.

Differentiated Instruction (DI), a pedagogical model grounded in learner diversity, provides a theoretically

robust and practically feasible framework to meet this challenge, promoting both skill development and learner

motivation.

Although Differentiated Instruction has been widely recognized internationally as an effective approach for

promoting equity and engagement in heterogeneous classrooms (Feng et al., 2025; Matiyenga & Ajani, 2024),

its implementation in Chinese vocational education remains minimal and under-theorized. Several contextual

factors—such as the persistence of exam-oriented teaching, large class sizes, limited teacher preparation in DI

methods, and insufficient access to differentiated teaching materials—constrain teachers’ ability to tailor

instruction effectively (Kaziya, 2025). Moreover, most empirical studies on DI in China have been conducted

Another underexplored issue concerns the differential impact of DI across proficiency levels. While many

studies have demonstrated its overall effectiveness, relatively few have examined how DI benefits learners of

varying proficiency within the same classroom. Without such disaggregated analysis, it remains unclear

whether DI equally supports all students or tends to favor particular subgroups. This issue is particularly salient

in vocational settings, where proficiency levels often range from near-beginner to intermediate or higher.

Ensuring that struggling students receive sufficient scaffolding without limiting the learning opportunities of

high-level learners is critical to achieving equitable outcomes and fostering both competence and confidence

across the cohort.

The present study addresses these gaps by systematically investigating the impact of Differentiated Instruction

on English reading skills among vocational school students in Jinan, China. It aims not only to assess

improve the English reading comprehension of vocational school students compared with traditional

instruction? (2) How do students of low, medium, and high proficiency levels perceive and perform under a

Differentiated Instruction model in their reading classes? These questions are designed to capture both the

measurable and experiential dimensions of differentiation in the vocational EFL classroom, providing insights

into instructional efficacy, learner engagement, and equity.

This research contributes to the growing body of literature on differentiated pedagogy in several important

scaffolded support, flexible group work, and choice-driven activities, it offers a replicable instructional model

that vocational English teachers can realistically apply without excessive preparation or specialized technology.

Third, by analyzing outcomes across proficiency levels, the study contributes to a more nuanced understanding

of educational equity. It highlights how differentiation can narrow achievement gaps by empowering low- and

medium-level learners while also identifying the need for upward differentiation to ensure continued growth

among high-level students. Finally, by integrating quantitative and qualitative data, the study offers a model for

evaluating both learning outcomes and learner experiences, reinforcing the practical relevance of DI for

teaching in real-world vocational contexts

according to learners’ developmental levels and readiness. Differentiated Instruction operationalizes this

theoretical principle by advocating for systematic variation in instructional content, process, and assessment to

accommodate diverse learner needs. Tomlinson et al. (2003) emphasizes that differentiation does not mean

individualizing every task, but rather designing learning experiences that are flexible enough to respond to

varied student readiness, interests, and learning profiles. The synergy between ZPD and DI thus bridges theory

and practice: ZPD provides the cognitive foundation for understanding individual learning potential, while DI

provides the pedagogical strategies to actualize that potential in real classrooms (Reis & Renzulli, 2018).

In English language education, this integration is particularly relevant because students often exhibit diverse

linguistic competencies and affective orientations. For example, a teacher may provide scaffolded vocabulary

support for low-proficiency learners while offering analytical discourse tasks to advanced students, ensuring

A growing body of empirical research has demonstrated the positive impact of Differentiated Instruction on

learner engagement, motivation, and achievement in English language teaching. Internationally, El-Henawy

(2025) synthesized multiple classroom-based studies and concluded that differentiation fosters inclusivity and

learner-centered environments, particularly in linguistically diverse classrooms. Similarly, Bernard et al. (2019)

found that differentiated strategies in ESL contexts promote student autonomy and participation by allowing

learners to engage with content at their own cognitive and linguistic levels. Ismail and Al Allaq (2019) further

reported that teachers who implemented differentiated activities observed improved student confidence and

communicative competence, as instruction was more responsive to individual needs. In East Asian EFL

settings, DI has been shown to reduce learner anxiety and promote collaborative learning, creating more

supportive classroom dynamics. In the Chinese context, several studies have examined the application of DI at

teachers frequently encounter structural barriers such as large class sizes, limited resources, and rigid curricula

that make consistent differentiation difficult. These constraints highlight the gap between theoretical advocacy

and classroom feasibility. Although the empirical evidence consistently supports DI’s pedagogical value,

further research is needed to investigate how differentiation can be adapted to vocational classrooms, where

instructional goals are often practical, time-bound, and skill-oriented. Thus, understanding how teachers

negotiate these constraints to implement DI effectively is essential for sustaining its long-term impact in

English language teaching.

English teaching in vocational education settings is shaped by distinctive institutional contexts and learner

characteristics. Unlike students in general academic programs, vocational learners enter with highly diverse

reforms that value progress over uniformity. When these elements align, vocational English classrooms can

become dynamic environments where differentiation drives both language growth and occupational

competence. Therefore, vocational education not only provides a fertile ground for applying DI but also tests

its adaptability and resilience under real-world teaching constraints.

research findings in vocational English classrooms. The mixed-methods design also facilitated the exploration

of differential effects across proficiency levels, addressing both the “what” and the “how” of DI’s impact.

transcribed verbatim and translated into English. Thematic analysis followed Braun and Clarke’s six-phase

framework, including familiarization with the data, generating initial codes, identifying themes, reviewing and

refining themes, defining and naming themes, and producing the final report (Ahmed et al., 2025). Credibility

and trustworthiness were enhanced through peer debriefing and member checking. The integration of

This equivalence is particularly important in vocational education contexts, where heterogeneous backgrounds

and prior academic experiences often result in wide proficiency gaps (Bell Sebastián et al., 2025). By ensuring

similar starting points, the study mitigates confounding factors, allowing a clearer assessment of the

differentiated instruction (DI) intervention. Moreover, establishing baseline comparability lends credibility to

subsequent findings, especially when evaluating differential effects across low, medium, and high proficiency

learners. This step reinforces the study’s methodological rigor and aligns with best practices in quasi-

experimental research design (Rausch et al., 2024). Practically, the equivalence demonstrates that DI can be

tested in real-world vocational classrooms without selective bias, enhancing the external validity of the results.

The experimental group’s greater gain (6.04 points vs. 4.36 points for the control) indicates that DI provides a

measurable advantage over traditional, whole-class teaching methods. This aligns with international findings

that differentiation enhances learning outcomes by targeting students’ readiness, interests, and learning profiles

(Gheyssens et al., 2022). Beyond raw scores, DI fosters active engagement through tiered assignments,

addressing diverse learner needs in vocational classrooms.

Stratified analysis within the experimental group highlighted pronounced differences in outcomes based on

students’ initial proficiency. Low-proficiency students achieved the largest gains, improving from 63.00 (SD =

1.69) to 75.88 (SD = 6.53), t(7) = -6.071, p = .001. Medium-level learners also showed substantial

improvement (70.35 to 75.28, t(23) = -4.823, p < .001), whereas high-proficiency students displayed only

These results suggest that DI is particularly beneficial for students who might otherwise struggle in traditional

classrooms, aligning tasks with their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and providing scaffolded support.

Medium-level learners also benefit from increased challenge and collaborative learning opportunities.

However, high-proficiency learners’ limited gains reveal the need for upward differentiation and enrichment

activities to maintain engagement. Practically, this finding underscores that DI is most effective when designed

to balance accessibility for struggling learners and intellectual challenge for advanced students.

Thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews provided insights into the mechanisms behind quantitative

gains. Low and medium-level students emphasized that task difficulty aligned with their ZPD, fostering

The qualitative findings illustrate that DI enhances learning not only through measurable gains but also by

promoting a positive and inclusive classroom culture. The combination of tiered tasks, scaffolded supports, and

structured collaboration contributes to both skill development and increased learner motivation, demonstrating

DI’s holistic impact. For educators, these insights emphasize the importance of carefully designing

differentiated activities that cater to varied proficiency levels while fostering collaborative engagement.

Despite the overall success of DI, high-proficiency learners reported unmet advanced needs. Students like Liu

Qin expressed a desire for open-ended questions and higher-order thinking tasks to maintain engagement.

These findings highlight a critical caveat: effective DI must include vertical differentiation to challenge

advanced learners while still supporting struggling students.

Integrating quantitative and qualitative evidence, it is clear that DI significantly improves reading

comprehension, particularly for low- and medium-level students, while fostering confidence, collaboration,

among first-year vocational school students in Jinan, China. The integration of quantitative and qualitative

methods allowed for a comprehensive understanding of how DI impacts students across varying proficiency

levels. The findings provide clear evidence that DI is a potent pedagogical strategy in mixed-ability vocational

classrooms, offering both measurable learning gains and improvements in learner engagement, confidence, and

collaboration.

The quantitative data indicated that students in the experimental group, who received DI-based instruction,

achieved significantly greater improvement in reading comprehension compared to the control group receiving

traditional instruction. Stratified analysis revealed that low-proficiency students benefited the most, showing

dramatic gains in comprehension, vocabulary acquisition, and task completion confidence. Medium-

proficiency students also demonstrated significant improvement, reinforcing DI’s broad applicability for the

peer support, idea exchange, and peer-teaching opportunities. Appropriately leveled materials facilitated

comprehension for most learners, while high-proficiency students voiced the need for more intellectually

stimulating tasks, emphasizing the necessity of balancing accessibility with challenge. Collectively, these

findings confirm that DI is not merely a remediation tool but a comprehensive instructional philosophy that

addresses cognitive, motivational, and social dimensions of learning.

For educators, the study underscores the importance of robust DI implementation. Teachers should receive

targeted training in designing tiered tasks, scaffolding instruction, and structuring flexible grouping that

accommodates all proficiency levels. Incorporating choice-based activities and differentiated assessments can

further enhance engagement and mastery. Curriculum developers and educational authorities should provide

leveled reading resources and differentiated lesson plans aligned with vocational training requirements,