classrooms, has informed numerous African curriculum reforms. This paper critically examines the

psychological viability of Deweyan progressivism in sub-Saharan African contexts, focusing on Zimbabwe as a

case study. Empirical evidence indicates that learner-centred, inquiry-based approaches have the potential to

enhance engagement, higher-order thinking, and democratic dispositions. However, gaps in foundational skills

growth, reflection, and social interaction rather than merely transmit fixed knowledge. Across Africa, Deweyan

principles have influenced curriculum reforms, particularly under competency-based curricula (CBC)

frameworks. Despite policy enthusiasm, the cognitive and psychological demands of learner-centred pedagogy

(LCP), including prior knowledge, working memory, language comprehension, and scaffolding, are often under-

recognised in practice.

This study addresses three key questions:

1. What psychological strengths and limitations accompany the adoption of Deweyan progressivism in

African schooling systems?

2. How has Zimbabwe implemented progressivist reforms, and what empirical outcomes, both successes

and challenges, have emerged?

philosophy promotes a shift away from rote memorisation and passive learning, arguing that knowledge should

be actively constructed by learners through engagement with real-world contexts. Constructivist theory builds

on these ideas by emphasising that learners interpret new information in light of prior knowledge, which shapes

how they organise and retain learning (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). Both perspectives prioritise student

agency, suggesting that learners develop a deeper understanding when they can explore, question, and apply

concepts in authentic ways. The teacher in this framework becomes a facilitator, guiding students while allowing

them freedom to explore ideas independently and collaboratively. Classroom practices, therefore, include hands-

on projects, problem-solving tasks, and interactive discussions that mirror real-life decision-making. This vision

positions the classroom as a living laboratory for intellectual growth and democratic participation.

view mistakes not as failures but as opportunities for growth, which cultivates resilience and adaptive thinking.

Teachers, therefore, play a critical role in scaffolding these experiences, ensuring that students are supported as

they navigate complex concepts. This cycle of action, reflection, and adjustment is at the heart of progressivist

and constructivist learning.

Another important element of Deweyan progressivism is its democratic ethos, which frames the classroom as a

microcosm of society where students practice skills of dialogue, negotiation, and shared responsibility (Dewey,

1916). Constructivist principles support this by emphasising the role of social interaction in learning,

highlighting that collaboration enables learners to co-construct meaning and gain multiple perspectives

(Bransford et al., 2000). Group projects, cooperative problem-solving, and peer feedback exercises embody these

ideas by creating contexts where students learn from one another. Such practices not only enhance academic

overly unstructured inquiry may lead to superficial understanding if learners are left without sufficient guidance

(Dewey, 1916). Similarly, constructivist classrooms can be challenging to implement in large or under-resourced

settings, where individualised attention and scaffolding are difficult to provide. Standardised testing systems

also pose barriers, as they prioritise memorisation and uniformity over exploration and critical thinking.

Nevertheless, empirical evidence suggests that when implemented effectively, progressivist and constructivist

practices foster deeper comprehension, creativity, and problem-solving skills (Bransford et al., 2000). The

challenge lies in balancing freedom with structure, ensuring that learners have both autonomy and support.

Teachers who integrate explicit instruction with inquiry-based tasks often achieve the most successful outcomes.

Such a balance allows these theories to remain practical as well as philosophically appealing.

Deweyan progressivism and constructivism provide a foundational framework for learner-centred education that

philosophies within a broader evidence-based framework, educators can design practices that are both visionary

and practical. This synthesis ensures that learning remains meaningful, motivating, and sustainable across

diverse contexts.

Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) is a psychological framework that emphasises the limitations of working memory

and the importance of designing instruction that reduces unnecessary processing demands (Sweller, 2022).

According to CLT, human working memory is finite, and when instructional materials impose excessive

demands, learners experience overload that hinders comprehension and retention. This is particularly relevant

for novice learners, who lack well-developed schemas and therefore require structured guidance to avoid

cognitive strain (Ashman & Sweller, 2023). Instructional strategies such as worked examples, scaffolding, and

gradual release of responsibility are recommended to optimise learning by aligning with cognitive architecture.

example, students with higher prior knowledge or stronger metacognitive skills may handle more complex

problem-solving tasks without overload, while novices require more structured guidance. This variability

underscores the importance of differentiated instruction, where educators adjust strategies based on learners’

readiness levels. Emerging research also explores the role of technology in mitigating or exacerbating cognitive

load, particularly as online platforms become central to education (Ouwehand, Lespiau, Tricot, & Paas, 2025).

Effective use of visual aids, interactive simulations, and adaptive technologies can reduce cognitive demands

and enhance understanding when properly designed. Conversely, poorly structured digital materials can

overwhelm learners with distractions, irrelevant information, or excessive multitasking. CLT thus offers

important insights for both traditional and modern classrooms.

CLT also intersects with motivational perspectives, particularly self-determination theory, offering a holistic

ensures that educational practices are both cognitively efficient and motivationally supportive. In this way, CLT

complements broader theories of learning by situating cognition within a dynamic motivational context.

Educators who apply this integration are more likely to foster sustained engagement and achievement.

Applications of CLT have extended beyond traditional classrooms to professional and medical training, where

complex tasks require careful management of cognitive demands (Szulewski, Howes, van Merriënboer, &

Sweller, 2021). In such contexts, training programs that begin with guided practice before progressing to

independent performance have been shown to enhance learning outcomes. This approach is equally applicable

in school settings, where gradual release strategies help learners transition from dependence on teacher support

to autonomous problem-solving. By ensuring that students do not face excessive demands too early, educators

create conditions for deeper comprehension and skill mastery. Furthermore, integrating CLT into assessment

acknowledging individual differences, CLT remains highly relevant in both traditional and digital learning

environments. Its integration with motivation theories such as self-determination theory further strengthens its

explanatory power, showing how cognitive efficiency and psychological needs interact to shape learning.

Importantly, CLT offers practical strategies for scaffolding, sequencing, and differentiating instruction to support

diverse learners. For this reason, it remains one of the most influential cognitive frameworks in education today.

Its ongoing refinement ensures continued relevance in addressing contemporary educational challenges.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) provides a robust framework for understanding motivation in education by

emphasizing the role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in promoting intrinsic motivation (Ryan et al.,

2022). When students feel that they have meaningful choice and control over their learning, their intrinsic

motivation is enhanced, leading to deeper engagement and persistence in academic tasks (Guay, 2022).

Competence refers to the learner’s sense of effectiveness, which grows when instructional support and feedback

SDT provides a powerful lens for understanding how motivation can be cultivated in ways that sustain

engagement and promote deeper learning. Its emphasis on autonomy, competence, and relatedness aligns closely

with progressivist and constructivist philosophies that prioritise active, student-centred learning. By integrating

SDT into instructional practices, educators can move beyond surface-level compliance to foster genuine

investment in learning tasks. Research consistently shows that autonomy-supportive environments lead to

improved academic achievement, persistence, and well-being (Ryan et al., 2022). This makes SDT not only a

theoretical model but also a practical guide for designing learning environments that meet both cognitive and

emotional needs. Furthermore, its compatibility with cognitive load theory highlights the importance of

comprehension and engagement (Cummins, 2000). This situation imposes extraneous cognitive load because

learners must simultaneously decode linguistic structures and process academic content (Skulmowski & Xu,

2022). Such dual demands can hinder working memory efficiency and reduce overall learning outcomes. From

this perspective, sociocultural considerations intersect with cognitive load theory by showing how language can

either support or hinder learning depending on instructional design. Teachers who recognise these challenges

can adapt strategies, such as using visual aids, scaffolding vocabulary, or allowing code-switching, to support

learners. These practices help balance linguistic demands with cognitive processing, enabling more equitable

access to education.

diverse cultural backgrounds may have different expectations regarding participation, collaboration, or authority

of belonging and validation. This highlights how sociocultural theory complements progressivist and

motivational perspectives by situating learning within real-world cultural dynamics.

understanding but because of limited proficiency in the language of instruction. Standardised assessments that

do not accommodate multilingual learners risk misrepresenting their actual knowledge and skills (Cummins,

2000). This creates equity concerns, as students may be unfairly disadvantaged based on linguistic rather than

academic factors. Addressing this requires alternative forms of assessment, such as oral presentations, project-

based evaluations, or bilingual support, that allow students to demonstrate understanding without unnecessary

linguistic strain. Research indicates that multilingual learners benefit from scaffolding strategies such as pre-

teaching vocabulary, using visual organisers, and providing simplified language without diluting academic

can also provide translation support or share cultural references that make concepts more relatable. Such

interactions not only support cognitive development but also build social bonds that fulfil motivational needs of

relatedness, as emphasised in SDT (Ryan, 2023). Group work, cooperative projects, and peer tutoring, therefore,

embody the convergence of cognitive, motivational, and sociocultural theories in practice. Importantly, these

practices help students develop empathy, communication skills, and cross-cultural awareness. This integration

demonstrates how learning is simultaneously cognitive, social, and cultural. Teachers who leverage peer

dynamics thus enrich both academic and interpersonal development.

Sociocultural and language considerations highlight the critical role of context in shaping educational outcomes.

They emphasise that learning cannot be separated from linguistic, cultural, and social realities, which deeply

influence how students engage with content. Multilingual classrooms present unique challenges by imposing

additional cognitive demands, but these can be addressed through inclusive instructional strategies. Culturally

responsive pedagogy ensures that learners’ identities and experiences are valued rather than marginalised.

nd inclusive education through the Education Sector Strategic Plans (ESSP 2016–2020; 2021–2025). According

to MoPSE (2021), these plans aimed to strengthen early literacy, numeracy, and inclusive classroom practices

to ensure no learner was left behind. To support these reforms, the TEACH programme, implemented in

partnership with the Education Development Trust, trained over 17,000 teachers and school leaders by 2023.

The initiative particularly targeted professional standards, foundational teaching skills, and the creation of

pedagogical ideals and its efforts to translate them into actionable strategies. However, the actual classroom

implementation remains far more complex and fragmented.

The Zimbabwean case also illustrates the dangers of policy-practice disjuncture when reform is not accompanied

by holistic support structures. While policies promote active learning, teachers often revert to traditional, lecture-

based methods that guarantee exam success but undermine learner-centred objectives. Moreover, inconsistent

rural schools with limited infrastructure. The TEACH programme represents progress, yet without continuity

This means that even when teachers attempt active learning, students may disengage or perform poorly due to

excessive mental demands. Additionally, teachers without strong training in scaffolding techniques may struggle

to reduce unnecessary cognitive load. As a result, learners in Zimbabwe often fail to experience the intended

benefits of progressive education.

learning more demanding than traditional rote methods. This issue is compounded when teachers themselves are

underprepared for teaching in multilingual contexts, leading to communication breakdowns. Consequently,

students may disengage from inquiry-based tasks due to linguistic challenges rather than intellectual capacity.

These findings highlight that professional development must not only focus on pedagogy but also on linguistic

and cultural inclusivity. Thus, psychological perspectives reveal that without addressing cognitive load,

motivation, and language challenges, progressive reforms in Zimbabwe will remain constrained.

A hybrid pedagogical model that blends explicit instruction with scaffolded inquiry-based tasks is essential for

foundational literacy and numeracy skills without cognitive overload, while inquiry-based activities develop

higher-order reasoning and creativity. By sequencing these approaches, teachers can gradually reduce extraneous

cognitive load and allow students to engage more meaningfully with problem-solving tasks. This scaffolding

process not only promotes knowledge retention but also empowers students to transfer skills to new contexts.

Evidence from both African and global research confirms that balanced models yield stronger outcomes than

project-based assessments and open-ended questions would motivate teachers to design lessons that nurture

critical and creative thinking. Such reforms would reduce the policy-practice gap by harmonising what is taught

and what is tested. Moreover, assessment transformation can shift learner motivation from surface learning to

deep understanding.

However, successful assessment reform requires systemic planning and gradual implementation. Policymakers

must consider piloting alternative assessment models before nationwide adoption to minimise disruption and

resistance. Teacher training on designing and grading innovative assessments is essential to avoid inconsistencies

in evaluation. Additionally, parents and communities must be sensitised to the value of broader learning

outcomes beyond exam scores. Continuous monitoring and research will also be needed to ensure that

assessment innovations improve rather than disadvantage learners, particularly in under-resourced schools.

particular, encourages collaborative planning, observation, and reflection, making professional development

directly tied to classroom realities. By engaging in ongoing cycles of improvement, teachers build both

confidence and competence in applying progressive pedagogies. Such sustained approaches foster professional

communities of practice rather than isolated efforts.

Transitioning to this model requires systemic changes in teacher support structures. Education authorities must

allocate time within the school calendar for collaborative professional learning activities. Head teachers and

instructional leaders should also be trained to facilitate mentoring and peer observation effectively. Funding

should be directed toward school-based capacity-building rather than one-off training events that lack follow-

up. Furthermore, linking professional development to performance appraisal systems can incentivise teachers to

Teacher education institutions (TEIs) must work more closely with schools to ensure that teacher preparation

aligns with classroom realities. Stronger partnerships would bridge the gap between theory taught in colleges

and the practical demands faced by teachers in schools. Pre-service teachers should undergo extended,

supervised placements in diverse classroom settings where progressive pedagogy is being trialled. This would

ensure that they graduate with both conceptual understanding and practical application skills. By integrating TEI

expertise with in-school mentorship, teacher training can become more coherent and context-sensitive. Effective

partnerships thus play a critical role in sustaining innovation in teacher practice.

Strengthening these partnerships also enhances accountability across the teacher education ecosystem. TEIs can

For Deweyan ideals to resonate with Zimbabwean learners, curricula must reflect cultural relevance and local

heritage. Embedding inquiry-based tasks in locally meaningful contexts allows students to connect learning with

their lived experiences. For example, problem-solving activities could be based on community agriculture,

heritage conservation, or traditional arts, which makes learning authentic and practical. Such contextualisation

reduces cognitive barriers by linking abstract knowledge to familiar realities. Moreover, a culturally relevant

curriculum promotes learner identity, pride, and motivation to engage in classroom activities. In this way,

progressive pedagogy becomes a tool for empowerment rather than alienation.

Developing such a curriculum requires deliberate collaboration between policymakers, curriculum developers,

and local communities. Teachers should be trained to design lessons that integrate local knowledge systems into

Policy sequencing ensures that progressive reforms are introduced gradually and strategically. Instead of

nationwide implementation, innovative practices such as project-based learning should be piloted in selected

schools. These pilot programmes can provide valuable evidence on feasibility, effectiveness, and resource

requirements. Lessons learned from small-scale trials can then inform more effective national scaling. This

approach reduces resistance, manages risks, and allows continuous refinement of reform models. Sequenced