INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025  
Strategies and Effective Learning in Genetics and Genomics Courses  
for Undergraduate Students: A Systematic Literature Review  
1Isnawati, 1Elma Sakinatus Sajidah, 1Fitriari Izzatunnisa Muhaimin, 1Ahmad Fudhaili, 1Putut  
Rakhmad Purnama, 1Nurul Jadid Mubarakati, 2Muhammad Zahrudin Afnan, 3Syafri Musthofa  
1Biology Department, Faculty Mathematic and Natural Sciences, Universitas Negeri Surabaya,  
Surabaya, Indonesia  
2Master Programme Biology Education, Faculty of Mathematic and Natural Sciences, Universitas  
Negeri Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia  
3Biology Education, Faculty of Mathematic and Natural Sciences, Universitas Negeri Surabaya,  
Surabaya, Indonesia  
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000740  
Received: 10 November 2025; Accepted: 18 November 2025; Published: 22 November 2025  
ABSTRACT  
Genetics and genomics courses often contain complex and abstract content that can be challenging for students  
to comprehend. To address this, educators must employ engaging and effective learning strategies. This paper  
systematically reviews the literature on trends and strategies for enhancing learning in undergraduate genetics  
and genomics courses. The review follows a systematic literature review (SLR) methodology using the PRISMA  
flow for identification, evaluation, and interpretation of studies. The search was limited to articles published  
between 2008 and 2025, using the keywords " learning in genetics and genomics." From 3562 articles initially  
identified, 28 were selected for in-depth review. The study found that Problem-Based Learning (PBL) was the  
most prominent approach, appearing in various forms such as PBL-RQA, PBL-Online Discussion, PBL with  
Scientific Argumentation, and PBL-STEM. Other strategies included STEM learning, the learning cycle, inquiry  
learning, case-based learning, and several hybrid models. PBL is particularly prevalent due to its ability to  
enhance student knowledge, creativity, and problem-solving skills by encouraging exploration of real-world  
issues, critical reading, and questioning. Furthermore, PBL promotes collaboration, self-directed learning, and  
the development of communication skills competencies highly relevant in the 21st-century academic and  
professional landscape. These findings suggest that integrating PBL and other active learning models into  
genetics education can significantly improve student outcomes and engagement.  
Keyword- Genetics Education, Active Learning Strategies, Undergraduate, Systematic Literature Review,  
Innovative Instructional Models  
I.INTRODUCTION  
The invention of recombinant DNA technology, commonly known as genetic engineering, has significantly  
advanced the field of genetics and genomics. As a core course in many undergraduate biology programs,  
Genetics and Genomics is distinguished by its complexity and intricate nature. Genetics, the study of heredity,  
encompasses the structure and function of genetic material, mechanisms of inheritance, gene expression  
regulation, genetic variation, population genetics, and genetic engineering [1]. Although the concept of heredity  
has been applied since the 18th century, it lacked a comprehensive scientific foundation at the time [2]. The field  
began to take shape following the pioneering work of Gregor Mendel in the 1860s. Mendel, through his  
experiments with pea plants, established the fundamental principles of inheritance, earning him the title "Father  
of Modern Genetics." Further breakthroughs, such as the discovery of the DNA double helix by James Watson  
and Francis Crick in 1953, provided deeper insights into genetic material and its transmission across generations  
[3].  
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In addition to classical Mendelian genetics, which explores the inheritance of genotypes and phenotypes from  
parent organisms, the Genetics and Genomics course also delves into the molecular basis of inheritance [4], [5].  
It examines mutations, their consequences, and provides a comprehensive overview of genetic disorders and  
diseases [5]. A significant challenge in teaching this subject is students’ difficulty in grasping molecular-level  
concepts, which are often abstract and not directly observable. Consequently, effective and targeted learning  
strategies are essential to enhance student understanding and memory.  
However, integrating current scientific knowledge in genetics and genomics into undergraduate curricula faces  
several challenges. First, there is a need to balance the complexity of advanced concepts with accessibility for  
students from diverse academic backgrounds and varying levels of preparedness [6]. Second, instructors must  
possess sufficient pedagogical and domain expertise to teach these rapidly evolving fields effectively [7]. Third,  
the development of learning materials must ensure both scientific accuracy and relevance to real-world  
applications, such as biotechnology, personalized medicine, and global health issues [8], [9]. Based on this  
description, it is evident that the expansion of genomics knowledge and its societal applications represent a  
turning point in genetics education. These developments have stimulated pedagogical innovation, underscored  
the importance of scientific literacy, and reshaped how genetics and genomics are taught at the undergraduate  
level. Nonetheless, significant challenges remain to ensure the adequacy, accessibility, and relevance of  
instruction. Therefore, through this research, we aim to deepen understanding of current trends, identify effective  
practices, and propose recommendations for strengthening genetics and genomics education in higher education.  
In this context, bibliometric analysis provides a systematic approach to examining current research trends and  
practices in genetics and genomics education for undergraduate students [10]. This method enables the  
identification of publication patterns, the evaluation of contributions from leading researchers and institutions,  
and the mapping of thematic evolution and methodological approaches within this field [11]. By applying  
bibliometric techniques, it becomes possible to capture how the academic and educational communities address  
the challenges of teaching complex genetics and genomics concepts, while also highlighting strategies that foster  
deeper understanding, critical thinking, and the development of essential scientific competencies [12].  
This research describes and analyzes recent developments in strategies and effective learning practices in  
genetics and genomics courses for undergraduate students. Specifically, it identifies innovative and evidence-  
based teaching approaches, evaluates the integration of technology and active learning models, and examines  
substantial pedagogical shifts in response to the growing complexity of genetics and genomics education.  
Furthermore, this study investigates how diverse instructional strategies such as problem-based learning,  
inquiry-based approaches, case studies, and stochastic models enhance student comprehension, critical thinking,  
and scientific reasoning in genetics. Leveraging leading scientific publication databases such as Scopus, this  
research systematically reviews articles focusing on undergraduate genetics and genomics education, with  
analyses encompassing publication trends, geographical distribution, and patterns of institutional collaboration.  
At the content level, the review explores the core topics emphasized in genetics and genomics courses, including  
molecular mechanisms, genetic variability, data analysis, and their applications in human health and  
biotechnology. This systematic analysis provides insights into priority areas for curriculum development and  
highlights effective instructional strategies that align with both scientific advancements and the competencies  
required in the 21st-century biological sciences.  
This research will identify current trends in genetics and genomics learning strategies and project the direction  
of their development in the coming years. Accordingly, the study is expected to make a significant contribution  
to improving the quality and relevance of undergraduate biology education, particularly in genetics and  
genomics, while also preparing future graduates with the knowledge, skills, and competencies needed to address  
emerging challenges in biotechnology, medicine, and global health.  
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY  
Data and Sources of Data  
The method used in this study is a Systematic Literature Review (SLR), conducted in accordance with the  
PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. This method  
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involves the identification, evaluation, and interpretation of all relevant findings concerning the application of  
teaching strategies and learning models in Genetics and Genomics courses, based on predefined research  
questions. The literature search was restricted to research articles published between 2008 and 2024 from scopus  
database. Articles were retrieved using the search query “learning in genetics and genomics," filtered for research  
articles with relevant terms in the title or keywords within the Scopus database.  
Fig. 1 PRISMA Diagram  
The figure depicts the PRISMA flow diagram during the screening stage, 880 records were excluded due to  
irrelevance to the subject area, leaving 2,682 abstracts for further assessment. Following abstract screening, 587  
articles were retained for full-text eligibility evaluation. Of these, several reports were excluded for not being  
categorized as articles (n = 612), not published in English (n = 4), or due to exclusion based on keywords (n =  
1,479). Ultimately, 587 reports were included in the systematic review process, with 28 articles meeting all  
eligibility criteria and forming the final dataset for in-depth analysis.  
In total, 28 articles met all criteria and were included in the final analysis of this literature review. In terms of  
national context, most studies originated from the United States, followed by China, UK, Australia, Germany,  
Canada, Brazil, India, South Korea and Japan. Furthermore, most of the articles (n = 20) were published between  
2020 and 2025, while the remaining 8 articles were published between 2008 and 2017, indicating a growing  
trend in research on this topic in recent years.  
Data Analysis  
The data analysis process was conducted using VOSviewer software and Biblioshiny. Once the data was  
collected, the extracted files in CSV format were imported into VOSviewer software and Biblioshiny for further  
analysis and visualization. VOSviewer software and Biblioshiny was used to generate various network maps and  
overlays based on the data from all the articles found [11].  
This research uses the co-occurrence analysis type with the unit of analysis in the form of author keywords. The  
choice of author keywords is the unit of analysis because the keywords provided reflect the core of their research  
focus, making it relevant to identify trends, significant themes, and relationships between topics in the reviewed  
literature. With co-occurrence analysis, the relationship between keywords can be visualized as a network map,  
which helps uncover research patterns and identify dominant emerging topics. This methodological approach  
makes it possible to gain an in-depth understanding of current research in virus learning at the post-pandemic  
senior secondary school level. By focusing on bibliometric analysis using VOSviewer based on Scopus data,  
this study is expected to determine the development of trends in virus learning in the next few years.  
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION  
The Co-Occurrence of Learning Models Implemented In Genetics And Genomics  
Fig. 2 Co-Occurence of Learning Models Implemented In Genetics And Genomics  
The visualization highlights the interconnections among frequently used terms, with node size representing  
frequency and color clusters indicating thematic groupings. The largest cluster centers around “genetics” and  
“procedures”, reflecting the core focus of the reviewed studies. Surrounding clusters reveal related themes: the  
green cluster emphasizes genome, animals, phenotype, biological models, and single nucleotide polymorphism,  
highlighting applications in biological and genomic research; the red cluster associates diseases, metabolism,  
pathology, and cancer-related terms, reflecting biomedical and clinical contexts; while the blue cluster connects  
deep learning, bioinformatics, forecasting, and artificial neural networks, underscoring the integration of  
computational methods in genetics education and research. Overall, this network visualization demonstrates the  
multidimensional nature of genetics and genomics education, where biological, biomedical, and computational  
domains converge to inform effective learning strategies.  
Distribution of Country  
Fig. 3 Country Scientific Production  
Figure 3 illustrates the global distribution of Country Scientific Production. The map employs a gradient of blue  
shades to indicate the intensity of scientific output, with darker colors representing higher levels of publication  
activity. As depicted, the United States, China, and several European countries emerge as the leading  
contributors to the body of literature in this field. Other nations, including Japan, Australia, Brazil, and South  
Africa, also contribute, though to a comparatively lesser extent. This visualization highlights the geographical  
concentration of research productivity, suggesting that scholarly discussions on effective strategies for teaching  
genetics and genomics at the undergraduate level remain predominantly driven by research communities in  
highly developed countries with substantial research capacity.  
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Country Publication  
USA  
1068  
Japan  
China  
700  
South Korea  
India  
UK  
59  
63  
76  
81  
151  
149  
93  
89  
Australia  
Brazil  
Germany  
Canada  
Fig. 4 Top 10 Country Publication  
Figure 5 illustrates the comparative number of publications across different countries. The United States  
demonstrates the highest contribution with 1,068 publications, followed by China with 700 publications. The  
United Kingdom and Australia occupy the next ranks with 151 and 149 publications, respectively, while  
Germany and Canada contribute 93 and 89 publications. Brazil (81), India (76), South Korea (63), and Japan  
(59) show relatively lower yet notable contributions. This pattern emphasizes that the discourse on genetics and  
genomics education at the undergraduate level is largely dominated by research outputs from developed nations,  
particularly the United States and China, highlighting their central role in shaping global perspectives and  
pedagogical strategies within this field.  
This visualization effectively highlights the global landscape of academic contributions, indicating that the  
United States is a key contributor to research on genetics and genomics education. The data also reflect varying  
levels of engagement from other countries, suggesting opportunities for increased research efforts and  
collaboration in underrepresented regions.  
Despite the global relevance of genetics and genomics education, the geographic distribution of research remains  
uneven. Most of the reviewed studies originate from high-income countries such as the United States, China, the  
United Kingdom, Australia, and Germany. In contrast, regions with emerging scholarship such as Southeast  
Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East are minimally represented. This imbalance limits  
the diversity of pedagogical perspectives captured in the current literature. Educational challenges, resource  
availability, and sociocultural contexts in these regions differ significantly from those in high-income countries;  
therefore, more inclusive geographic representation is essential for developing globally applicable learning  
models in genetics education.  
Distribution of Years and Number of Articles  
A review of the literature on learning models used in genetics and genomics courses, published between 2008  
and 2025, reveals varying levels of research focus. Several models, notably Problem-Based Learning (PBL) and  
STEM-based learning, appear more frequently, as indicated by a higher number of publications. In contrast,  
other models receive minimal attention, reflected in the lower number of related articles (Figure 1). PBL, in  
particular, is widely adopted due to its ability to foster student creativity and critical thinking in solving real-  
world problems. Creativity, in this context, can be assessed through indicators such as curiosity, fluency,  
originality, elaboration, flexibility [13], and metaphorical thinking [14]. Figure 1 presents the trends in  
publication and citation of studies on learning models in genetics and genomics courses over the 2008–2025  
period. The data show a general increase in the number of publications per year, with slight fluctuations. The  
highest number of publications occurred in 2022, with five articles published.  
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Fig. 3 Distribution Learning Models and Article Count  
The Learning Models Implemented in Genetics and Genomics  
Based on the literature exploration from 28 articles, there are nineteen types of learning models are widely  
applied in genetics and genomic courses (Table 1). These learning models includes Problem-based learning  
(PBL) is implemented in four learning approaches, namely PBL-RQA, PBL-Online Discussion, PBL with  
scientific argumentation, and PBL-STEM. While the rest is applied in learning STEM, learning cycle, Inquiry  
learning, Case-based learning, Course-based research experience learning (CURE), Differentiated science  
inquiry (DSI) learning, exordium teaching, RQA, active learning, Backward planning design, Expository  
instruction, Geneticus Investigation, Face-to-face educational program, Remote learning, RQA, Scaffolding  
complex learning, Service-Learning, Stochastic Model, and Student-centered learning. Each learning models  
has its own advantages and disadvantages also has it focused on specific aspects of the learning activities.  
TABLE 1 Learning Model or Strategies in Genetics and Genomics Course  
Learning Model  
or Strategies  
Syntax  
Difficulties in  
Learning Model  
Advantages in Learning  
Model  
References  
Service-Learning 1. Identifying  
required service  
the Teachers  
more time in online real classroom settings  
learning compared enabled undergraduate  
to apply  
while knowledge in practical  
require Experiential learning in [15]  
2. Locating a suitable  
community collaborator  
to  
face-to-face students  
instruction,  
students experience contexts,  
unfamiliarity due to comprehension,  
limited interaction motivation, and cognitive  
and decreased development.  
enhancing  
3. Connecting  
service activity with  
learning objectives  
the  
motivation, posing  
significant  
challenges to the  
learning process.  
4. Overseeing  
execution of the project  
or initiative  
the  
5. Encouraging  
continuous  
student  
reflection during the  
process  
Student-centered Topic  
learning  
selection Key concerns in Student-centered learning [16]  
fosters active knowledge  
Collaboration planning student-centered  
Implementation  
Analysis Presentation of variations  
final results Evaluation individual skills and and  
learning  
involve acquisition,  
in conceptual understanding,  
enhanced  
deeper  
competencies,  
including  
communication through  
student–lecturer  
independence,  
cooperation,  
discussions that promote  
and  
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personal  
understanding..  
diverse perspectives and  
critical data analysis.  
Stochastic Model 1.  
Introduces the In genetics learning, Stochastic  
models [17], [18]  
introduce  
fundamental structure stochastic  
models effectively  
and  
demonstrates face difficulties due beginner  
students  
to  
and  
concepts using several to the complexity, mechanistic  
widely  
recognized noise, and inherent probabilistic  
concepts,  
learning algorithms.  
variability  
biological  
which can lead to views  
of such as genetic drift, while  
data, challenging deterministic  
2.  
Provided  
and  
fostering  
students with essential  
mathematical  
foundations to analyze  
inaccurate  
or quantitative reasoning in  
unstable outcomes understanding biological  
and limit their ability phenomena.  
the  
convergence  
to  
capture  
full  
behavior of stochastic  
learning algorithms.  
biological diversity.  
3.  
Explores  
the  
of  
performance  
stochastic  
learning  
algorithms on large  
datasets, addressing  
both statistical accuracy  
and  
computational  
demands.  
Learning cycle 1. The teacher engages This study cannot Students  
showed [19]  
higher  
model  
students in practical indicate a significant significantly  
activities that relate contribution of self- improvement  
directly to the learning efficacy to genetics understanding  
in  
concrete  
and more  
content (Exploration).  
achievements.  
concepts  
frequently  
progressed  
2. The teacher guides a  
between developmental  
stages compared to those  
in the expository teaching  
group.  
discussion  
where  
students exchange their  
observations  
classmates.  
with  
3. The teacher links  
students' experiences to  
the  
appropriate  
scientific concepts.  
4. Students take part in  
additional tasks that  
apply  
their  
new  
understanding in varied  
contexts.  
Case-study  
model  
1. Define the case  
2. Analyze the case  
The application of The assessment results [20]  
case studies and case indicate improvements in  
study articles used is both content knowledge  
quite complicated and students' perceptions  
and there is too of their learning after  
much reading. It  
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3. Independently find takes a lot of time implementing the case  
information, data and about more than 1 study approach.  
literature  
hour to analyze the  
article or case study  
to solve the problem  
to find a way out of  
the case.  
4. Students determine  
the solution steps of the  
case that has been  
provided  
5. Making  
6. Conclusions from the  
answers that have been  
discussed together  
7. Presentation  
improvement  
Problem based 1. Clarify and reach The competencies of Problem-Based Learning [21]  
learning – Online consensus  
on  
the the teacher for this (PBL) enhances 21st-  
of type of strategy can century skills by fostering  
Discussion  
definitions  
ambiguous terms and also be challenging  
concepts  
problem-solving, critical  
thinking, genetic literacy,  
and interactive teacher–  
Competencies  
for  
2. Identify the core the  
teacher  
student  
collaboration,  
while challenging students  
to present solutions,  
problem and agree on regarding concepts  
the phenomena that and genetic literacy  
need to be explained  
skills are essential to  
engage in discussion, and  
strengthen argumentation  
through feedback and  
rebuttals.  
avoid  
misconceptions.  
any  
3. Break down and  
examine the problem in  
detail  
4. Organize  
possible  
explanations into  
preliminary solution  
a
5. Formulate and rank  
learning objectives by  
importance  
6. Investigate  
objectives  
the  
through  
independent study  
7. Share  
findings,  
integrate explanations,  
and  
relate  
new  
knowledge back to the  
original problem  
Course-based  
research  
experience  
1.  
Learn Essential Student  
struggle The laboratory fosters [22]  
time discovery through  
and unfamiliar data, iterative  
Experimental  
Techniques  
with  
management  
learning (CURE)  
learning new tools processes, and extensive  
and research on collaboration, enabling  
a.Guided question  
genetics course.  
students to develop core  
scientific practices while  
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b.Literature review  
2. Design  
engaging with topics of  
broader relevance and  
potential scholarly impact.  
an  
Experiment  
a. Develop  
question  
group  
b. Write protocol  
3.  
Carry  
out  
Experiment  
a. Autonomy  
b. Time (open lab)  
c. Collect & analyze data  
4. Interpret Data &  
Communicate Results  
a. Poster, presentation,  
or formal paper  
Case-study  
Model  
1. Define the case  
Detail assessment is Case-based  
required to assess enhances  
the score of the solving, critical thinking,  
student from their and higher-order cognitive  
response or results skills through active,  
learning [23]  
problem-  
2. Case-study analysis  
3. Independently find  
of the discussion.  
collaborative,  
integrative  
with relevant information.  
and  
engagement  
Information, data and  
literature  
4. Students determine  
the solution steps of the  
case that has been  
provided  
5. Making conclusions  
from the answers that  
have been discussed  
together  
6. Presentation  
7. Improvement  
1. Problem orientation  
2. Opinion expression  
3. Evaluation.  
Problem-based  
learning – STEM  
Effective  
activities  
motivating  
PBL PBL encourage students to [24], [25]  
require directly involve in the  
and execution of project and  
conceptually deep assignments. This method  
problems that foster gives opportunities for  
rational  
making, integration collaborate  
of prior knowledge, looking for solution to the  
and collaborative given problem that related  
decision- first-year students to  
4. Implementation.  
5. Presentation.  
trying to  
6. Reflection.  
problem-solving,  
with initial phases  
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designed to be open- with  
real-world  
ended and engaging. phenomena  
Remote Learning 1. Setting the lesson  
Limited  
teacher– A remote learning time [26]  
student and peer management tool based on  
2. Define  
objectives  
lesson  
interaction,  
training-oriented  
approach,  
a the Pomodoro Technique  
enhances task completion  
the by structuring 25-minute  
3. Assess  
understanding  
current  
demand for teachers focus cycles with short  
to master remote breaks, effectively  
learning, and low reducing procrastination,  
4. Introduce content dan  
assign  
activity  
student motivation multitasking,  
collectively hinder distractions.  
both academic and  
and  
application  
5. Assess mastery  
social dimensions,  
increasing the risk of  
academic failure.  
Inquiry learning  
1. Inquiry:  
with  
explore  
beginning Scheduling may be Although  
the  
results [27]  
a
question to more difficult for varied, they generally  
these classes indicate that the module  
because the module effectively enhanced  
2. Gathering:  
brainstorming potential  
answers  
is structured for students' knowledge of  
multiple consecutive plant genetics and boosted  
days, whereas most their  
interest  
and  
college courses do confidence in the subject.  
not have back-to-  
back sessions.  
3. Hypothesis: choosing  
a statement to test  
4. Planning: creating a  
strategy  
for  
investigation  
5. Evaluation: collecting  
evidence and forming  
conclusions  
6. Presentation: sharing  
and communicating the  
results or discoveries  
Learning cycle  
1. The teacher offers Learning  
students practical effectiveness  
activities connected to depends on teachers’ genetics achievement by  
The  
approach  
learning  
cycle [28]  
enhances  
the learning material.  
mastery, sincerity, engaging students in  
and creativity, hands-on experiments,  
supported by well- problem-solving, and  
concept integration, with  
management and the success linked to strong  
substantial time and reasoning and meaningful  
effort required for conceptual connections.  
lesson preparation  
2. The teacher leads a  
discussion  
where  
planned  
students exchange their  
observations  
classmates.  
with  
3. The teacher links  
students’ experiences to  
and implementation.  
the  
appropriate  
scientific concepts.  
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4. Students engage in  
additional tasks that  
apply  
their  
newly  
acquired knowledge in  
various contexts.  
Expository  
instruction  
1.Delivery of Learning Lack  
of The expository learning [28]  
Objectives and  
opportunities for the model is effective for  
development of delivering extensive  
students' exploration material within limited  
ability, creativity, time by allowing teachers  
independence and to control content scope  
2.Learning Material  
3.Apperception  
critical thinking.  
and sequence through  
explanations and  
demonstrations, making it  
practical for large classes.  
4.Carrying  
Expository  
Out  
Tends to cause  
passivity in students  
because they are  
used to receiving.  
Activities tend to be  
mechanistic  
a.Explaining  
concepts,  
laws directly, through  
questions and answers,  
illustrations,  
facts,  
principles,  
demonstrations and the  
use of media to clarify  
concepts.  
b.Practice questions  
c.Summarising  
5.Evaluation  
a.Giving  
test  
for  
evaluation  
b.Giving  
homework  
assignment  
Backward  
planning design  
1.Determine  
intended  
Define what students are backward  
expected to comprehend process  
and be able to perform determining  
by the conclusion of the desired result.  
unit or course.  
the One of the difficult The flexibility to use the [29]  
outcomes. parts  
of  
the textbook as a supportive  
design reference rather than  
is letting it dictate the  
the direction of the course  
2.Establish acceptable  
evidence. Decide how  
students  
will  
demonstrate  
their  
understanding and what  
types of evidence will  
be considered valid to  
show  
they  
have  
achieved the learning  
objectives.  
3.Design  
activities  
learning  
and  
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instruction. Plan the  
knowledge and skills  
students will require to  
succeed in the unit or  
course, and develop  
corresponding  
instructional  
experiences.  
STEM  
1. Observe  
Beliefs  
linking STEM education fosters [30]  
genetics  
determinism  
racial essentialism and  
may  
marginalized  
students  
to problem  
and knowledge  
recognition,  
acquisition,  
inquiry-based  
2. New Idea  
3. Reconstruction  
4. Innovation  
5. Creativity  
6. Society  
discourage understanding  
of  
processes  
disciplinary  
from while engaging students in  
biology problem-solving  
pursuing  
that  
and create cognitive reflects global intellectual  
dissonance  
contrasting  
when and cultural contexts.  
social  
science perspectives  
with genetics or  
medical education.  
Face-to-face  
educational  
program  
1. Review the existing Systemic obstacles Workshop participation [31]  
nursing curriculum to to  
determine how well it genetics/genomics  
incorporates  
and genomics-related competing  
implementing increased  
faculty  
confidence, particularly in  
genetics initiatives included discussing the influence of  
family  
history  
on  
content.  
institutional  
priorities,  
faculty engagement,  
screening  
limited recommendations.  
2. Use  
a
survey to  
evaluate the faculty’s  
current understanding of  
genetics/genomics and  
their level of confidence  
in teaching the subject.  
undervaluing  
of  
content,  
over  
concerns  
evaluations,  
and weak leadership  
support without  
active promotion or  
mandatory  
participation.  
3. Improve  
knowledge and teaching  
confidence  
faculty  
regarding  
genetics/genomics  
through  
professional  
development sessions  
and by expanding access  
to relevant genomic  
resources.  
4. Measure changes in  
faculty knowledge and  
confidence following  
participation in the  
development sessions.  
5. Create a new course  
and update the current  
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curriculum to better  
integrate  
genetics/genomics  
content.  
Problem-based  
Learning (PBL)  
The PBL teaching While  
approach is effectively develops fostered student creativity  
implemented in two professional skills across classes, as reflected  
PBL Findings showed that PBL [32]  
phases.  
when  
carefully in curiosity, fluency,  
structured, its main originality,  
drawback is the flexibility,  
considerable time metaphorical  
elaboration,  
and  
Asynchronous phase  
(4 days):  
thinking,  
required for students despite no significant  
1. Begin with orienting  
students to the problem  
at hand.  
to identify solutions. differences  
improvement levels.  
in  
2. Facilitate  
student  
organization into study  
groups.  
3. Support and guide  
group  
investigations  
into the problem.  
Synchronous phase (2  
days):  
4. Students collaborate  
to  
develop  
their  
solutions and present  
their findings through  
group presentations.  
5. Finally, the class  
engages in analyzing  
and evaluating the  
overall problem-solving  
process.  
RQA  
The  
Question,  
RQA  
(Read, The RQA class faces The  
Answer) a limitation in that improved  
results  
showed [32]  
student  
teaching strategy is many students tend creativity across classes,  
divided into two phases: to produce similar reflected in curiosity,  
questions  
answers.  
similarity  
and fluency,  
This elaboration,  
likely and metaphorical thinking,  
originality,  
flexibility,  
Asynchronous phase  
(4 days):  
results from all with the RQA method  
students using the further fostering curiosity  
1.Students begin by  
reading the assigned  
material and creating  
summaries.  
same  
reading and idea generation.  
material provided by  
the lecturer as their  
reference.  
2.Next, they formulate  
questions based on their  
understanding of the  
content.  
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3.Then, they attempt to  
answer the questions  
they have developed.  
Synchronous phase (2  
days):  
4.Students engage in  
group discussions to  
share and refine their  
understanding.  
5.Finally,  
they  
participate in a review  
session to reinforce and  
reflect on what they  
have learned.  
PBL-RQA  
The  
PBL-RQA The PBL-RQA class The PBL-RQA approach, [32]  
(Problem-Based  
presents  
certain combining Problem-Based  
Learning  
Question,  
–
Read, limitations due to its Learning with Read-  
Answer) relatively extended Question-Answer  
strategy is carried out in sequence of stages, strategies,  
enhanced  
two phases:  
which requires more student  
creativity—  
time compared to reflected in curiosity,  
Asynchronous phase  
(4 days):  
using PBL or RQA fluency,  
originality,  
flexibility,  
metaphorical  
enriching  
alone.  
challenges  
Additional elaboration,  
arise and  
1.Students  
introduced  
are  
the  
from technological thinking—by  
to  
constraints, such as knowledge,  
stimulating  
problems and directed to  
students  
adequate  
lacking idea  
digital fostering  
generation,  
and  
explore  
related  
creative  
literature, followed by  
writing summaries of  
their readings.  
devices like laptops problem-solving.  
or smartphones, as  
well as experiencing  
unstable  
connections.  
internet  
2.They then formulate  
questions based on the  
material and attempt to  
answer  
them  
as  
preliminary solutions.  
3.Students are  
organized into study  
groups to facilitate  
collaborative learning.  
4.Instructors  
guide  
students through the  
investigation  
and support  
process  
group  
discussions to deepen  
understanding.  
Synchronous phase (2  
days):  
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5.Students develop and  
present their group  
findings and solutions.  
6.The class concludes  
by  
analyzing  
and  
evaluating the overall  
problem-solving  
process.  
Blend  
of 1. Begin by presenting The study, limited to The  
method  
proved [24]  
problem-based  
an open-ended or ill- a six-week genetics effective in teaching basic  
learning (PBL) structured problem to unit with Grade 9 genetics by addressing  
with scientific spark students’ curiosity students taught by a common misconceptions  
argumentation  
and engagement.  
non-expert teacher, and fostering student  
highlights the need enjoyment,  
for replication with engagement,  
deeper  
and  
2. Facilitate small group  
discussions organized  
around three guiding  
questions: “What do we  
know?”, “What do we  
need to know?”, and  
larger,  
cross- characteristics of self-  
independent  
national samples and directed,  
expert-led  
instruction  
strengthen  
generalize  
findings.  
learning.  
to  
and  
the  
“What  
are  
our  
hypotheses?”  
3. Introduce the second  
part of the scenario to  
provide  
details,  
additional  
prompting  
students—working in  
diverse small groups—  
to explore possible  
solutions and select  
what they believe to be  
the most appropriate  
one.  
4. Clearly define the  
topics  
to  
support  
students in researching  
relevant  
and  
information  
evidence that  
strengthens their chosen  
solution through sound  
reasoning.  
5. Conduct  
class discussion focused  
on scientific  
argumentation, where  
each group’s  
representative presents  
a
whole-  
their  
solution  
and  
supporting  
while  
evidence,  
others  
offer  
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rebuttals to challenge  
competing claims.  
6. The process should  
lead the class toward a  
shared agreement on the  
most valid and well-  
supported solution to the  
problem.  
Geneticus  
Investigatio (GI)  
Scaffolding  
1. Define the problem  
2. Identify hypothesis  
No  
improvement was produced high learning  
found in students’ gains by supporting  
skills in designing conceptual understanding  
significant Guided  
Inquiry (GI) [33]d  
complex learning  
3. Design and predict  
result  
breeding  
and inquiry practices, with  
experiments  
formulating  
hypotheses,  
or students  
effectively  
applying domain-specific  
concepts  
4. Perform experiment  
5. Observe result  
6. Evaluate  
through  
reinforcing evidence interactive  
video-based  
that such abilities learning rather than direct  
require sustained teacher instruction.  
practice and long-  
term engagement.  
7. Summarize  
Exordium  
Teaching  
1. Build on the courses A  
students have already narrative approach, enhances  
predominantly This  
vivid  
language [34]  
cognitive  
studied and teach new such as Exordium, engagement with genetic  
material by connecting may be ineffective concepts and generates a  
it to their existing for  
teaching strong interest in the  
as its subject of genetics.  
knowledge base.  
genetics,  
complex concepts,  
technical  
terminology,  
methodologies, and  
quantitative analyses  
2. Carefully  
plan  
instruction to stimulate  
students' interest and  
enthusiasm for learning.  
require  
clear,  
and  
3. Clearly identify the  
research topics and  
specific tasks related to  
genetics.  
structured,  
systematic  
instruction.  
4. Present the historical  
development of genetics  
to  
ignite  
students’  
passion and provide  
meaningful insights.  
5. Relate  
genetics  
content to real-life  
situations and highlight  
its  
practical  
applications.  
Exordium  
Teaching  
1.Understand  
the Implementing the The Exordium approach [35]  
powerful  
having-studied courses Exordium model is offers  
a
and teach the students challenging as it framework for introducing  
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with students' having demands extensive students to complex life  
learned knowledge  
teacher preparation, sciences, but its success  
continuous depends on teachers’  
professional growth, thoughtful preparation,  
and deep expertise in continual skill refinement,  
genetics to and up-to-date expertise in  
effectively engage genetics.  
2.Elaborately  
design  
and inspire the students'  
learning interest  
3.Define the research  
subject and task of  
genetics  
students  
with  
complex life science  
content.  
4.Teach the developing  
history and inspire  
students'  
learning  
passions and make  
students gain revelation  
5.Integrating  
reality and emphasizing  
the application of  
with  
genetics  
Active learning  
A.Experience  
Designing a study A key advantage of active [36]  
that  
demonstrates  
effectiveness  
flipped classrooms learning process, where  
compared to other the collaborative  
forms  
convincingly learning lies in positioning  
1. Making observations  
2. Doing an experiment  
3. Reading  
the undergraduate students as  
of active participants in the  
of construction of knowledge  
through social interaction  
4. Conducting  
interview  
an  
collaborative  
learning presents a significantly  
significant understanding  
challenge, due to the individual  
complexity of efforts.  
isolating variables  
and accounting for  
the diverse contexts  
in which active  
learning occurs.  
enhances  
beyond  
cognitive  
5. Making things  
B.Interaction  
1. Asking questions  
2. Asking for others'  
opinions  
3. Making comments  
4. Working in a group  
C.Communication  
1. Demonstrating/showi  
ng/explaining  
2. Speaking/telling/telli  
ng  
3. Reporting  
4. Expressing  
opinions/thoughts  
(oral/written)  
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5. Exhibition of work  
D.Reflection  
PBL- STEM  
1.Problem Identification In higher education, The research findings [37]  
in PBL Process  
active  
presumes  
learning suggest that incorporating  
that STEM problem-based  
2.Idea  
Generation  
students are self- learning into genetics  
directed  
intrinsically  
Identification in PBL  
Process  
and instruction can be an  
effective strategy for  
motivated; however, enhancing  
first-year  
3.Learning  
Identification in PBL  
Process  
Issues  
many  
undergraduates’ interest  
undergraduates  
and engagement with  
struggle to meet this genetic concepts.  
expectation, finding  
it difficult to take  
4.Self-Directed  
Learning in  
full ownership of  
PBL Process  
their  
learning  
without structured  
guidance.  
5.Synthesis  
Application in PBL  
Process  
and  
6.Reflection  
Feedback  
Process  
and  
PBL  
in  
Inquiry Learning 1.Inquiry – initiating the The  
Differentiated process by posing a implementation of provides opportunities for  
Science Inquiry question that needs inquiry-based students with higher  
learning can be perception and abilities to  
challenging due to improve their skills,  
student encouraging students to  
initial 1. DSI learning method [18], [38], [39]  
-
(DSI) learning  
exploration.  
2.Idea Generation  
–
diverse  
characteristics,  
including  
thinking broadly to  
come up with various  
potential answers.  
actively explore processes  
their and empowering cognitive  
interests, learning processes  
while  
preferences,  
readiness,  
capacity to absorb  
and  
information.  
Moreover,  
considering students with  
and lower skills.  
3.Hypothesis Formation  
– choosing a specific  
idea or statement to  
evaluate or test.  
2. Inquiry learning also  
gives opportunities to  
indulge curiosity, develop  
creativity, generate and  
interpret  
4.Planning – creating a  
structured approach or  
strategy to investigate  
the chosen idea.  
transitioning to this  
discuss  
ideas,  
give  
new  
instructional  
arguments, make plans,  
and troubleshoot,  
approach demands  
time for adaptation,  
which may postpone  
the attainment of  
desired outcomes.  
5.Conclusion Drawing –  
3. Inquiry learning has its  
collecting  
information  
forming  
data  
or  
and  
level  
which  
is  
differentiated based on the  
intervention or guidance  
from the teacher toward  
learning activities:  
conclusions  
The  
proficiency  
facilitating  
teacher’s  
in  
based on the findings.  
this  
6.Presentation  
–
strategy also poses  
difficulties.  
Additionally,  
conveying  
and  
4. Demonstration Inquiry  
(Level 1) -> The teachers  
play roles in providing the  
discussing the outcomes  
inquiry-based  
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or discoveries with learning  
involves problem, planning the  
others.  
intricate assessment procedures, and analyzing  
methods that often the results  
require  
strong  
5. Structured  
inquiry  
alignment with and  
support from the  
existing curriculum.  
(Level 2) -> The teachers  
play roles in providing the  
problem and planning the  
procedures while students  
are tasked to analyze the  
results  
6. Guided inquiry (Level  
3) -> The teachers only  
play roles in providing the  
problem while students  
were tasked to plan the  
procedures and analyze the  
results  
7. Self-directed  
(Level 4) -> student  
actively executes all  
inquiry  
activities, from providing  
the problem to analyzing  
the results.  
Course-based  
research  
experience  
A. Learn  
Experimental  
Techniques  
Essential Student  
Experience  
might CURE allow students to [40], [41]  
high develop basic research  
level skills and involved in  
comprehensive research  
frustration  
during learning  
learning (CURE)  
1. Guided question  
within  
curriculum.  
Rigid structure and  
focused on or few  
topics per course  
Research skills that can be  
acquired include research  
2. Literature review  
B. Design an Experiment  
ethics,  
research  
plan  
formulation, information  
gathering, data collection  
and analysis. This learning  
method allows students to  
Students might have  
diverse time to adapt  
to the system  
1. Developed  
question  
group  
2. Write protocol  
improve  
their  
self-  
confidence, knowledge,  
and work efficiency.  
C. Carry out Experiment  
1. Autonomy  
2. Time (open lab)  
3. Collect  
data  
&
analyze  
D. Interpret Data  
&
Communicate Results  
1. Poster, presentation,  
or formal paper  
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The table provides a comprehensive comparison of various learning models and strategies, outlining their syntax,  
potential difficulties, advantages, and supporting references. Each approach ranging from service-learning,  
student-centered learning, stochastic models, learning cycles, case-based learning, and problem-based learning  
(PBL), to more specialized strategies such as CURE, RQA, PBL-RQA, Exordium teaching, and active learning  
presents unique strengths and challenges. While difficulties often relate to time demands, teacher competencies,  
student motivation, or content complexity, the advantages consistently highlight enhanced problem-solving,  
critical thinking, creativity, scientific reasoning, and student engagement. Collectively, the table emphasizes that  
selecting an appropriate learning model requires balancing pedagogical objectives, subject matter complexity,  
and learner needs, while also considering institutional support and teacher expertise to maximize effectiveness  
in genetics and related disciplines.  
Genetics is a fundamental subject for biology majors at universities and colleges. However, some introductory  
concepts in genetics are highly abstract and pose challenges for students' comprehension. In such cases,  
instructors are encouraged to use vivid and accessible method to facilitate student understanding and  
engagement. Our study identified four dominant variations of problem-based learning (PBL) applied in genetics  
education: PBL-RQA (Reading, Questioning, and Answering), PBL with online discussion, PBL integrated with  
scientific argumentation, and PBL-STEM. The prevalence of PBL in the literature suggests that it is widely  
regarded as an effective and relevant instructional model for teaching complex genetic concepts. The  
effectiveness of PBL is attributed to its ability to foster critical thinking, independent inquiry, and practical  
problem-solving skills key competencies in modern genetics education.  
PBL also supports the development of essential 21st-century skills by encouraging students to approach  
problems using diverse strategies and by fostering their abilities to respond to feedback, construct rebuttals, and  
articulate scientific arguments. Furthermore, PBL promotes greater student engagement in classroom activities  
by encouraging active participation in the process of knowledge construction. Through the identification and  
resolution of real-world, ill-structured problems, students are empowered to build meaningful understanding of  
genetics [24]. While PBL offers several advantages for application in genetics education, certain considerations  
must be addressed to ensure its suitability. The problems posed to students should be designed to encourage  
rational decision-making and the ability to defend arguments appropriately. These problems must also include  
objectives that promote connections with prior knowledge and coursework. In group-based PBL models,  
problem complexity is essential to foster effective collaboration among students in solving the presented  
challenges [24], [25].  
PBL is particularly well-suited for genetics education due to the inherently complex and applicable nature of  
genetic content. Many genetics concepts are closely linked to real-world case studies, such as genetic disorders,  
inheritance patterns, and advances in biotechnology. PBL enables students to engage with these authentic  
problems, thereby enhancing conceptual understanding along with analytical and critical thinking skills. This  
instructional model emphasizes collaborative problem-solving, aligning with the necessity to develop both  
critical thinking and teamwork competencies in genetics. Students in this field often work in groups to analyze  
genetic data, design experimental studies, and assess the ethical implications of genetic research. PBL helps  
prepare students for such tasks by promoting independent inquiry, which may involve reviewing scientific  
literature, interpreting genetic data, or exploring cutting-edge technologies such as CRISPR. Furthermore, PBL  
frequently incorporates a practical component that requires students to design and execute experiments to resolve  
specific problems. Given the highly experimental nature of genetics, where theoretical concepts are often  
validated through laboratory work, PBL provides an effective platform for integrating theory with practice.  
Research on the use of PBL in genetics may thus focus on how this model can be leveraged to enhance the  
integration of practical activities.  
The findings of this study which show that PBL effectively improves students' understanding and skill  
development in genetics courses highlight the growing academic interest in this instructional model. Trends in  
higher education pedagogy increasingly favor active learning approaches, making PBL a prominent and relevant  
topic in science education research, particularly in the context of genetics.  
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CONCLUSION  
Based on a review of literature from 2008 to 2025 on learning models and strategies in genetics and genomics  
courses, Problem-Based Learning (PBL) emerged as the most frequently implemented approach. PBL was  
applied through four distinct methods: PBL-RQA, PBL-Online Discussion, PBL with Scientific Argumentation,  
and PBL-STEM. Other models identified in the literature include STEM Learning, Learning Cycle, Inquiry  
Learning, Case-Based Learning, Course-Based Undergraduate Research Experiences (CURE), Differentiated  
Science Inquiry (DSI), Exordium Teaching, RQA, Active Learning, Backward Design, Expository Instruction,  
Geneticus Investigatio, Face-to-Face Educational Programs, Remote Learning, Scaffolding Complex Learning,  
Service-Learning, Stochastic Models, and Student-Centered Learning. Among these, PBL stands out as the most  
effective model for teaching genetics and genomics. It enhances essential 21st-century skills such as problem-  
solving and critical thinking. PBL also provides opportunities for first-year students to collaborate in finding  
solutions to real-world problems, thereby deepening their conceptual understanding and engagement.  
Future studies should intentionally incorporate findings from regions with growing research capacity in genetics  
education, particularly Southeast Asia, South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Latin America. Greater geographic  
diversity would provide a more comprehensive understanding of how different institutional infrastructures,  
cultural contexts, and technological conditions shape effective learning strategies. Such inclusion is crucial for  
producing recommendations that are globally relevant and sensitive to diverse educational realities.  
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT  
The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences  
(FMIPA) for providing financial support through the International Class Teaching Material Development  
Scheme. This support has greatly contributed to the completion and enhancement of this work. We deeply  
appreciate the trust, encouragement, and resources that have been made available throughout the process.  
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2. S. Safrida et al., PENGANTAR BIOLOGI: Teori Komprehensif. PT. Sonpedia Publishing Indonesia,  
2023.  
3. H. Adrianto, Buku Ajar Biologi Sel dan Molekuler. Deepublish, 2018.  
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