This study investigates the relationships between Chinese EFL learners’ perceptions of the National

Matriculation English Test (NMET) and their preparation strategies. Drawing on survey data from 620 senior

high school students, analyses examined how perceptions of test importance and test difficulty influence five

High-stakes examinations wield significant influence over language teaching and learning globally. In the realm

of language education, this influence is referred to as washback (Alderson & Wall, 1993; Bailey, 1996; Messick,

1996). Existing research has clearly shown that such tests have a profound impact on curricula, teaching

materials, and classroom practices (Cheng, 2005; Green, 2007a, b). However, the effects of these tests are not

homogenous; they are moderated by the perceptions and actions of various stakeholders, with learners playing

a particularly crucial role (Qi, 2005; Xie & Andrews, 2013).

Learners’ perceptions of a test are fundamental in understanding their preparation strategies. Drawing from the

expectancy-value and control-value theories (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Pekrun, 2006), students who attach high

importance to a test are more likely to engage in activities such as study planning, self-monitoring, and self-

preparation strategies among Chinese English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. The expected findings are

intended to contribute to the development of washback theory, offer valuable insights into learner strategy use,

and provide practical implications for language teaching, educational policy-making, and test design.

Currently, the Chinese education system includes preschool, primary, secondary and tertiary education levels.

Primary school education, which lasts six years, and junior secondary education, which lasts three years, are

compulsory. After the completion of this nine-year compulsory education program, approximately 50% of junior

high students enter senior high school for an additional three years of study. At the end of the senior high school

education, the students are required to take the National College Entrance Examination (NCEE, known as

Gaokao in China). NCEE has become one of the most important systems of choosing talents in the world. And

the secondary level. In many secondary schools, the final year of English instruction is largely devoted to NMET

preparation. This often involves intensive test-focused activities, such as repeated practice with mock

examinations, targeted exercises aimed at enhancing specific skills, and detailed error analysis.

Washback, also referred to as backwash, describes the influence that tests exert on teaching and learning. In

language education, this concept has been widely examined because high-stakes assessments often shape what

is taught, how it is taught, and how learners approach their studies. Alderson and Wall’s (1993) seminal work

formally conceptualized washback, proposing 15 hypotheses to explain the ways examinations affect educational

practices. Building on this, Hughes (1993) introduced a trichotomy model, distinguishing between participants

(teachers, learners, administrators), processes (teaching and learning activities), and products (learning

explain the relationship between test difficulty, perceived test importance, and observed washback, Green

developed a conceptual model. According to Green, there is strong washback when the test is viewed as

significant and difficult. And there is a nonlinear link between perceived test difficulty and washback. Washback

is produced at the midway point of the test difficulty continuum rather than at either extreme. Participants

typically quit tests that they feel are too challenging, and they wouldn’t bother studying if they thought the test

was too easy. Intense washback is unlikely to happen unless the test is viewed as difficult yet achievable. This

study will investigate what the senior high school students’ perceptions of the NMET are, in terms of test

difficulty and test importance, according to Green’s Model of Washback (2007a).

According to Oxford (1990), language learning strategies are classified into direct strategies (memory strategies,

strategies, and social strategies). “Memory strategies, such as grouping or using imagery, have a highly specific

Affective strategies help to regulate emotions, motivations, and attitudes. Social strategies help students learn

through interaction with others”. (p. 135)

In the present investigation, however, affective and social strategies are consolidated into a unified category

labelled “social-affective strategies”, as participants’ engagement with these strategies was both limited and

frequently overlapping.

This part will discuss the empirical studies on the washback effects of high-stakes language assessments,

exploring the perception of participants and teaching or learning process.

hurdle led to a learning process focused solely on test-taking tricks and practice exams, undermining deeper

language acquisition. Students’ primary aim was simply to achieve a high score for university admission,

reinforcing the emphasis on exam performance over language development.

Hawkey (2006) extended the inquiry to the International English Language Testing System (IELTS), exploring

how perceptions of test fairness and validity mediate washback. Hawkey’s findings revealed a conditional pattern:

when IELTS was viewed as fair and valid, washback tended to be constructive; when it was seen as overly

Green’s work on IELTS further elaborated on these dynamics. In an in-depth investigation of IELTS writing test

confirmed that perceived test stakes strongly mediated engagement: learners in IELTS courses, who viewed the

test as critical to accessing higher education, narrowed their focus to exam-specific strategies. By contrast, pre-

sessional learners, with less immediate pressure to achieve a specific test score, engaged more broadly with

communicative activities. This divergence underscored how high-stakes test perceptions can redefine “learning

success” as test performance, rather than language proficiency.

Xie and Andrews (2013) refined these insights through a focused investigation of China’s College English Test

(CET), a nationwide exit-level examination for university students. Combining classroom observations with

behavior. Multiple-choice sections were interpreted by examinees as rewarding “test-wiseness” (e.g., distractor

surface-level preparation strategies, each reinforcing a disjuncture between test performance and the broader

communicative aims nominally espoused by the examination.

Razavipour et al. (2020) investigated the relationship between test-takers’ perceptions and their preparation

behaviors within a washback framework. The study explored how learners’ views of test content and test uses

influenced the intensity and nature of their preparation. They found that positive perceptions of test content were

associated with more intensive preparation, suggesting that learners invest greater effort when they believe the

test meaningfully reflects their skills. Interestingly, while perceptions of test uses were correlated with the value

learners attached to test taking, these perceptions did not significantly predict actual preparation intensity. This

highlights a nuanced pattern: learners may recognize the stakes and value of a test but do not always translate

this recognition into concrete preparation behaviors.

Liu and Yu (2021) explored the relationships between motivational orientations and learning practices among

258 Chinese undergraduate English majors preparing for a high-stakes English test. Findings demonstrated a

clear divergence in the effects of motivational types. Extrinsic test-driven goals were found to significantly and

positively predict rote-oriented practices such as test drilling, repetitive memorization, and exam-focused

tendencies have been identified, there is limited empirical evidence detailing the specific categories of strategies

that learners prioritize or neglect in direct relation to their perceptions. Finally, despite the global focus on tests

like IELTS and TOEFL, the Chinese EFL context, dominated by the monumental influence of the NMET on

millions of annual test-takers, warrants more systematic investigation.

To address these gaps, the present study seeks to explore the interplay between learner perceptions and strategic

preparation within the context of the Chinese NMET. This study aims to examine how perceptions of the test’s

importance and difficulty correlate with the reported use of distinct strategic categories. By investigating these

relationships, this research endeavors to contribute to a more nuanced and learner-centered understanding of

washback mechanisms, offering significant implications for pedagogical practice in high-stakes assessment

environments.

preparation and being imminent test-takers, they possessed direct and recent experience with NMET-focused

Data were collected using two questionnaires: a student perception questionnaire, designed to assess learners’

views on NMET importance and difficulty, and a test preparation questionnaire, aimed at exploring their specific

preparation practices. The perception questionnaire comprised two main sections. Section A gathered

demographic information, while Section B included 12 items measuring perceptions of NMET importance and

difficulty. Items related to importance used a 5-point Likert scale (1 = “does not apply to me at all” to 5 = “applies

to me entirely”), and those assessing difficulty used a 5-point scale (1 = “very easy” to 5 = “very difficult”). The

test preparation questionnaire contained 50 items, also using a 5-point scale (1 = “never” to 5 = “always”), to

quantify the frequency of specific preparation behaviors.

Reliability analysis was conducted to evaluate the instruments’ internal consistency. Following Perry Hinton et

al. (2004), who note that a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient between 0.70 and 0.90 indicates high reliability, all

Descriptive statistics revealed that among the five strategy categories, memory strategies were employed most

lead to success. Cheng (2005) also noted that high perceived test difficulty can discourage learners from using a