INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025  
AI Applications in Higher Education in Malaysia: An Academic  
Review  
Fairus Muhammad Darus1*, Norina Ahmad Jamil2, Nik Azlin Nik Ariffin1,2*  
1Faculty of Applied sciences, University Technology MARA, 40450 Shah Alam  
2Institute of Quality and Knowledge Advancement (InQKA), University Technology MARA, 40450  
Shah Alam  
*Corresponding Author  
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000786  
Received: 07 November 2025; Accepted: 14 November 2025; Published: 24 November 2025  
ABSTRACT  
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is rapidly transforming the landscape of higher education globally, and Malaysia is  
actively embracing this technological shift. This report provides a comprehensive, academically referenced  
analysis of AI applications within Malaysian higher education institutions (HEIs), exploring their multifaceted  
benefits, the significant challenges encountered during adoption, and the key factors influencing their  
integration. The analysis reveals that AI offers substantial opportunities for enhancing personalized learning  
experiences, streamlining administrative processes, revolutionizing assessment methodologies, supporting  
research, and promoting greater accessibility and inclusion. However, its transformative potential is tempered  
by critical concerns, including ethical dilemmas, risks to academic integrity, data privacy vulnerabilities, the  
potential for over-reliance on technology, and existing limitations in skills, infrastructure, and funding. The  
integration of AI in Malaysian higher education is not merely an organic technological evolution but a  
deliberate, government-backed national imperative, deeply intertwined with Malaysia's broader economic and  
industrial aspirations, particularly its Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) agenda. While AI holds the promise of  
democratizing learning, its actual impact on educational equity is heavily dependent on addressing  
fundamental infrastructure and access disparities. Furthermore, a central challenge lies in the paradox of AI's  
efficiency, where the very tools designed to enhance learning might inadvertently impair the development of  
critical thinking and independent learning skills if not integrated thoughtfully. Addressing these interconnected  
challenges requires a holistic, policy-driven approach, emphasizing responsible AI governance, sustained  
investment in infrastructure and talent development, and a pedagogical shift that prioritizes human-centric  
learning alongside technological advancement. Recommendations are provided for policymakers, HEIs, and  
students to navigate this evolving landscape effectively, ensuring AI integration aligns with national  
educational goals and values, fostering critical thinking, and preparing a workforce for the digital age.  
INTRODUCTION  
AI in Malaysian Higher Education  
Artificial Intelligence is increasingly reshaping the global higher education landscape, offering unprecedented  
potential to transform teaching, learning, and research.1 This global trend is distinctly mirrored in Malaysia,  
where AI is exerting a growing influence across the educational sector.2 The Malaysian higher education sector  
stands at a critical juncture, necessitating a fundamental reimagining of how institutions operate, educate, and  
generate value, with AI integration emerging as a crucial differentiator in this evolution.3  
Malaysia's commitment to AI-driven education is clearly articulated and strategically embedded within  
national policy frameworks. This commitment is a key priority under the Malaysia Education Blueprint (2013-  
2025).4 The Ministry of Education (MOE) has explicitly recognized AI's capacity to revolutionize traditional  
teaching methods, optimize student learning experiences, and cultivate a more data-driven education system.4  
Page 9619  
www.rsisinternational.org  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025  
This strategic emphasis on AI integration underscores a broader national objective: to leverage technological  
advancements for national competitiveness and economic prosperity in the digital era. The success or failure of  
AI in higher education is therefore deeply intertwined with the effective execution of national policies and the  
strategic allocation of resources, extending beyond the isolated efforts of individual institutions.  
Further solidifying this commitment, Malaysia has introduced pivotal policy frameworks such as the National  
AI Roadmap 2021–2025, designed to foster a thriving AI innovation ecosystem and encourage both industry  
leaders and academicians to develop and implement AI solutions.5 The establishment of a new Ministry of  
Digital in 2024, alongside a National AI Office, further accentuates Malaysia's ambition to secure a prominent  
position as a key AI player within ASEAN and globally.6 These entities are tasked with spearheading  
initiatives that harness AI to bolster digital economy growth and enhance public services. This national  
aspiration extends beyond domestic educational improvement; it aims to cultivate a skilled workforce and  
robust research capabilities that will underpin Malaysia's regional and global standing in the AI domain.  
Consequently, educational outcomes related to AI literacy and talent development directly impact Malaysia's  
international competitiveness and influence. The Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) and the Malaysia  
Qualification Agency actively contribute to this national agenda by providing guidance and advisory notes for  
the responsible use of generative AI in academia.5  
This report aims to provide a comprehensive, academically referenced analysis of AI applications in Malaysian  
higher education. It explores the benefits derived from these applications, the challenges encountered during  
their adoption, and the pivotal factors influencing their successful integration. The analysis is strictly grounded  
in scholarly articles and research to ensure an evidence-based and objective perspective.  
Key Applications and Benefits of AI in Malaysian Higher Education  
The integration of Artificial Intelligence in Malaysian higher education institutions (HEIs) has introduced a  
diverse array of applications, yielding significant benefits across various facets of teaching, learning, and  
administration. These applications are not merely incremental improvements but represent a fundamental shift  
in pedagogical approaches.  
Enhancing Personalized Learning Experiences  
AI-powered platforms are designed to analyse student data, identify individual strengths and weaknesses, and  
adapt educational content to meet specific learning needs, thereby making the learning process more engaging  
and effective.1 This personalization extends to tailoring educational content and interactions to match  
individual learners' preferences and pace.1 AI can dynamically assess a student's existing knowledge and  
continuously adjust instruction and content to build upon prior understanding, facilitating deeper learning.1  
This adaptive approach can also provide tailored feedback in local languages, such as Bahasa Malaysia,  
enhancing comprehension and skill improvement.2  
Virtual tutors and assistants, driven by AI, are becoming integral components in revolutionizing learning  
experiences.1 AI technology enables the creation of virtual mentors, particularly valuable for distance learning  
environments.8 AI chatbots, functioning as virtual tutors, offer responsive, personalized, and adaptive support  
based on student needs and understanding levels, providing immediate help and explanations.8 For instance,  
ReSkills, a prominent Malaysian EdTech platform, leverages AI to deliver adaptive learning experiences  
specifically tailored to the national curriculum.2 Similarly, FAME International College utilizes AI data  
analytics to identify patterns in student performance and implement targeted remedial programs.2 Intelligent  
Tutoring Systems (ITSs) are recognized as sophisticated educational tools that facilitate personalized learning  
10  
and have demonstrated a statistically significant improvement in learning attitudes and test scores among  
students.10  
Streamlining Administrative Processes  
AI is significantly streamlining administrative processes within Malaysian HEIs by automating a range of  
routine tasks, including grading assignments, tracking attendance, and generating performance reports.1 This  
Page 9620  
www.rsisinternational.org  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025  
automation substantially reduces the administrative burden on staff, allowing them to redirect their focus  
towards more strategic and impactful initiatives.11  
In admissions and enrollment, AI-driven systems efficiently process high volumes of applications, retrieving  
and evaluating applicant data based on predetermined standards.11 AI-driven chatbots engage with prospective  
students, providing prompt answers to queries regarding classes, degree requirements, and costs.11  
Furthermore, AI assists institutions in achieving diversity and inclusion objectives by analyzing applicant  
demographics and historical data.11 For academic records management, AI automates data entry, verification,  
and updates within student information systems, minimizing human error and facilitating swift access to  
information while ensuring compliance with regulatory frameworks.11 AI also streamlines the evaluation of  
financial assistance applications, identifies irregularities or fraud, and predicts financial aid needs, leading to  
more effective budget planning.11 In terms of resource management and optimal course scheduling, AI-based  
tools automate facility assignments, maintain schedules, and predict demand for faculty and equipment,  
thereby enabling efficient resource allocation.11 AI also contributes to enhanced security by optimizing energy  
use, maintenance planning, and space utilization across campus facilities, and by improving campus security  
through the identification of unauthorized entries or potential threats.11 Lastly, AI assists career services by  
providing customized job suggestions that align with students' academic achievements and interests, and by  
monitoring the professional development of former students to foster continued engagement with the  
institution.11  
Revolutionizing Assessment and Feedback  
AI holds substantial potential to revolutionize assessment practices by moving beyond traditional examinations  
towards continuous, authentic, and personalized evaluation.1 AI-powered tools can automate the grading of  
multiple-choice and simple open-ended questions, thereby freeing educators to concentrate on providing  
feedback for more complex, higher-order tasks.1 This technology also enables adaptive assessments that adjust  
in real-time based on student performance, ensuring that learners are continuously challenged at an appropriate  
level.1  
Beyond mere grading, AI can analyze complex student work, offering nuanced insights that extend beyond  
simple right/wrong evaluations, such as assessing argumentation structures in essays or collaboration dynamics  
in group projects.1 AI-powered feedback systems can deliver tailored, timely, and actionable guidance, which  
supports self-regulated learning and facilitates the rapid correction of misconceptions.1 In some instances, AI-  
enabled systems have been observed to provide feedback that is more effective than that offered by human  
instructors.1 Practical examples of AI in assessment include tools like Turnitin, widely adopted by universities  
to reduce administrative workload and uphold academic integrity.2 Similarly, Grammarly and other language  
check tools assist users in identifying and correcting grammatical and structural errors in written work.4 AI-  
supported chatbots can also analyze and evaluate students' learning abilities.8 Furthermore, the development of  
AI-integrated alternative assessments in engineering education aims to enhance precision, personalization, and  
alignment with industry needs.13  
Supporting Research and Academic Development  
AI plays a significant role in supporting research and fostering academic development within Malaysian HEIs.  
AI-based research writing tools have advanced to assist with various aspects of the research process, including  
conducting literature reviews, visualizing data, and proofreading academic texts.12 These tools can also  
stimulate idea generation and provide problem-solving assistance, thereby enhancing the efficiency and quality  
of scholarly work.8 Beyond direct research support, AI improves data analysis capabilities and promotes  
interdisciplinary research collaborations.14  
For educators, AI technology introduces adaptive teaching strategies by enriching their understanding of the  
student learning process and offering effective ways to support learners.8 AI also contributes to the  
professional development of educators by providing teaching evaluation models and suggestions for improving  
teaching practices.8 The Ministry of Education has initiated specific programs to enhance teachers' digital  
technology proficiency, with a particular focus on AI, aiming to certify teachers as "Apple Teachers" and  
Page 9621  
www.rsisinternational.org  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025  
"Guru Jauhari Digital".15 This indicates a strategic investment in equipping educators with the skills necessary  
to navigate and leverage AI in their professional roles.  
Promoting Accessibility and Inclusion  
AI plays a crucial role in enhancing educational transparency and accessibility, providing significant assistance  
to students with diverse learning needs.9 AI-powered tools such as speech recognition, text-to-speech  
converters, and real-time translation systems make learning more inclusive for students with disabilities and  
non-native speakers.2 These technologies are instrumental in creating accessible learning environments that  
effectively accommodate a wide spectrum of student needs.2  
Furthermore, AI-powered tutoring systems can adapt content to suit various learning styles, ensuring that every  
student in Malaysia, irrespective of their socio-economic background, has equitable access to quality modern  
education.2 This commitment to inclusivity through AI aligns with the broader national agenda of fostering  
2
digital inclusion.1 The strategic alignment of AI with Malaysia's Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) agenda  
suggests that the benefits of AI in higher education extend beyond academic enhancement to encompass  
workforce development, preparing graduates with the necessary skills for a digitized economy. This makes AI  
integration not merely an educational improvement but a critical component of Malaysia's national economic  
competitiveness strategy. The ability of AI to facilitate personalized learning and revolutionize assessment  
methods represents a fundamental shift in instructional design and delivery, moving towards more dynamic,  
adaptive, and student-centred educational models.  
Table 1: Summary of AI Applications in Malaysian HEIs  
Specific AI  
Applications/Tools  
Function in Malaysian  
HEIs  
Examples/Context  
Adaptive Learning  
Platforms  
Analyze student data, tailor  
content to individual needs,  
ReSkills, FAME  
International College, AI-  
Learning &  
Instruction  
provide personalized learning driven adaptive learning  
paths.  
platforms 2  
Virtual Tutors/Mentors  
Provide personalized  
assistance, responsive  
support, and explanations for  
distance learning.  
Blackboard application, AI  
chatbots 8  
Intelligent Tutoring  
Systems (ITSs)  
Offer personalized learning,  
improve learning attitudes  
and test scores.  
ITSs in general 10  
Generative AI Tools  
(e.g., ChatGPT, Gemini) accurate access to  
information, content creation,  
Facilitate faster and more  
ChatGPT, Gemini, Bing AI,  
Bing Image Creator 7  
idea generation.  
Automated Grading  
Systems  
Automate grading of  
AutoGradr, Repl 8  
Assessment &  
Feedback  
multiple-choice and simple  
open-ended questions,  
provide real-time feedback.  
Plagiarism Detection  
Software  
Maintain academic integrity, Turnitin 2  
detect AI-generated content.  
Grammar & Language  
Checkers  
Identify errors in language,  
improve writing quality.  
Grammarly, Quill Bolt,  
Writefull X 4  
Adaptive Assessments  
Adjust in real-time based on  
AI-powered adaptive  
student performance, provide assessments 1  
Page 9622  
www.rsisinternational.org  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025  
nuanced insights into  
complex work.  
AI-driven Chatbots  
Predictive Analytics  
Manage student queries,  
provide instant responses,  
assist with  
AI-powered chatbots 2  
Administrative  
Support  
admissions/enrollment.  
Identify at-risk students,  
predict student  
AI-driven predictive models  
2
behavior/needs (e.g.,  
performance, retention),  
optimize resource allocation.  
Automated Data  
Management  
Automate data entry,  
verification, updates for  
academic records, financial  
aid.  
AI in student information  
systems 11  
Resource Management  
Tools  
Automate facility  
AI-based tools for optimal  
course scheduling 11  
assignments, maintain  
schedules, predict demand  
for faculty/equipment.  
Research Writing Tools Assist with literature reviews, Scispace, Mendeley, general  
Research &  
Development  
data visualization,  
proofreading.  
AI-based tools 12  
Professional  
Development Tools  
Provide teaching evaluation  
models, suggestions for  
AI technology for educators  
8
improving teaching practice.  
Speech  
Recognition/Text-to-  
Speech  
Make learning inclusive for  
students with disabilities and  
non-native speakers.  
AI-powered tools 2  
Accessibility &  
Inclusion  
Real-time Translation  
Systems  
Facilitate cross-cultural  
communication and support  
multilingual education.  
AI-powered tools 2  
Virtual Reality (VR) &  
Augmented Reality  
(AR)  
Create immersive learning  
experiences, simulate real-  
world scenarios.  
VR and AR applications 2  
Challenges and Concerns in AI Adoption  
While the integration of AI in Malaysian higher education offers significant advancements, it also presents a  
complex array of critical challenges and concerns that demand urgent attention. These issues are often  
interconnected, indicating a systemic problem that necessitates holistic solutions rather than isolated  
interventions.  
Ethical Considerations and Algorithmic Bias  
The widespread integration of AI in Malaysian public universities, despite its promise, introduces several  
critical ethical challenges.1 These include fundamental concerns regarding bias, the potential for  
misinformation, and the evolving roles of educators within an AI-driven environment.17  
A significant concern revolves around algorithmic bias. AI systems are typically trained on vast datasets,  
which can inherently contain biases reflecting existing societal inequalities.1 If these biases are not proactively  
Page 9623  
www.rsisinternational.org  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025  
addressed, AI tools risk perpetuating and even exacerbating existing disparities within the educational system.  
For example, AI-driven admission systems could inadvertently favor certain demographic groups over others  
based on biased historical data, leading to discriminatory practices.20 This potential for discrimination  
necessitates the rigorous development and implementation of unbiased AI algorithms, coupled with regular  
audits to ensure fairness and equality in educational opportunities.19 Malaysia's culturally and linguistically  
diverse population presents distinct challenges and opportunities for tackling prejudice with AI-powered  
educational tools, requiring a thorough understanding of local socio-cultural dynamics to ensure AI systems  
are culturally sensitive and inclusive.2  
Another ethical concern is the "black box problem," referring to the opacity of some AI systems where their  
decision-making processes are not transparent.9 This lack of transparency raises significant ethical and  
practical concerns, particularly when AI systems support or make decisions that affect academic progression.9  
Students, for instance, may find it difficult to understand how certain decisions are made by AI, leading to a  
lack of trust or perceived unfairness.15  
Academic Integrity and Plagiarism  
The proliferation of generative AI tools, such as ChatGPT, has introduced considerable apprehension within  
the education sector, primarily due to their potential to undermine established academic paradigms like  
evaluation and course design.15 Students can readily utilize these AI tools to generate essays, answer quizzes,  
or complete assignments, raising significant concerns about academic integrity.18  
While AI detectors exist to combat this, they can sometimes erroneously flag original student work as AI-  
generated, complicating the situation for educators and potentially leading to unjust accusations.18 AI-driven  
plagiarism detection systems might also produce false positives or negatives, raising questions about their  
overall reliability and fairness.19 A critical consequence of over-reliance on AI for solutions is that students  
may bypass the essential learning process, thereby compromising academic integrity, unique thought, and  
creativity.8 Students who depend on AI for solutions risk missing out on crucial opportunities for personal  
growth and the development of their writing skills.18  
Data Privacy and Security Risks  
The extensive deployment of AI systems in universities necessitates access to vast quantities of personal data,  
encompassing students' academic records, personal information, and behavioral patterns.2 While these datasets  
are crucial for AI algorithms to function effectively, their collection and processing introduce significant  
privacy and security risks, including the potential for data breaches and unauthorized access to sensitive  
information.19 Incidents of weak security practices mishandling or exposing behavioral profiles and academic  
records have been reported, leading privacy advocates to warn that such issues are a primary reason for  
unfavorable views of AI in educational settings.18  
The issue of consent is particularly complex, as students and staff may not be fully aware of the extent to  
which their data is being collected, analysed, and utilized by AI systems, leading to a lack of informed  
permission.19 Unawareness regarding what data is collected, how it is used, and who has access to it can cause  
discomfort and negatively impact learning experiences.15 Furthermore, concerns exist regarding data retention  
and the long-term consequences of holding substantial quantities of personal data, necessitating careful  
deliberation on appropriate retention durations and intended uses.20 Implementing stringent data management  
policies and ensuring compliance with frameworks like Malaysia's Personal Data Protection Act (PDPA) are  
imperative to safeguard student information.2  
Over-reliance on Technology and Impact on Critical Thinking  
While AI offers notable educational benefits, a significant concern is that over-reliance on such technology  
may impair the development of critical thinking and independent learning skills.1 The availability of a  
machine's ready-made solution can discourage students from engaging in thorough analysis and deep  
learning.19 This presents a paradox: the very efficiency that makes AI attractive also poses a risk to the core  
Page 9624  
www.rsisinternational.org  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025  
cognitive skills that higher education aims to cultivate. Malaysian HEIs face a delicate balancing act:  
leveraging AI's efficiency gains without inadvertently undermining the fundamental educational mission of  
fostering deep learning and critical thought. This suggests a need for pedagogical frameworks that actively  
integrate AI in a way that promotes rather than replaces cognitive effort.  
Excessive reliance on AI could also lead to reduced human interaction in learning, potentially resulting in  
students feeling isolated.18 Teacher-student relationships, built on mentorship, human interaction, and  
emotional support, are threatened by automated systems.8 This diminishes opportunities for developing  
interpersonal skills and engaging in complex, dialogic learning that is crucial for fostering critical thinking and  
creativity.18 The simplicity of AI-generated information may encourage passive learning rather than active  
participation.18 Students might become lazy and delay assignments, relying on AI for quick solutions, which  
can diminish or eliminate their critical thinking abilities.8 Moreover, over-reliance on AI can reduce the  
essential role of educators, whose guidance and mentorship are vital for holistic student development and  
cannot be fully replicated by AI systems.20  
Skills Gap, Infrastructure, and Funding Limitations  
Despite AI's growing presence, its adoption among university students in Malaysia remains moderate, often  
attributable to limited digital literacy and a lack of understanding regarding AI's capabilities and implications.4  
There is a recognized shortage of AI talent in Malaysia, alongside a prevalent skills gap among educators who  
need to effectively integrate and utilize these technologies.15 Students with limited exposure to AI and lower  
technological skills consistently exhibit lower adoption rates, even when they acknowledge the potential  
benefits of AI in education.4  
Challenges also extend to inadequate infrastructure and limited access to AI technologies, particularly  
pronounced in rural regions where a significant portion of B40 (bottom 40% income group) families reside.16  
This disparity in access creates educational inequity, as AI-enhanced learning methods may primarily benefit  
students in urban areas with better connectivity and device availability.18 The interconnectedness of these  
challenges is evident; for instance, limited digital literacy contributes to a lack of understanding, which in turn  
can lead to over-reliance or resistance to change. Algorithmic bias is exacerbated by data privacy risks if  
biased data is collected and misused. This highlights that addressing one challenge in isolation is unlikely to be  
effective, necessitating a multi-faceted and integrated approach.  
Furthermore, adequate funding and resources are crucial for investing in AI technologies, upgrading  
infrastructure, implementing comprehensive training programs for educators, and providing ongoing support  
for AI initiatives.11 Limited financial resources or competing priorities can pose significant challenges to  
scaling up AI initiatives across the educational system.16 While recent budget allocations have expanded  
6
funding for AI initiatives at research universities , the initial costs for developing and implementing  
sophisticated AI systems can be substantial, potentially prohibitive for many institutions, especially those  
lacking sufficient funding or technological expertise.11 Finally, resistance to change and the need for  
significant cultural shifts among staff members are notable obstacles, as teachers and administrators may  
harbor uncertainties about AI's impact on their roles and responsibilities.11  
Table 2: Key Challenges and Ethical Concerns of AI Integration in Malaysian HEIs  
Challenge Category  
Specific Concerns/Risks  
Implications for Malaysian HEIs  
Bias in AI algorithms from  
historical data, lack of  
transparency ("black box  
problem"), potential for  
misinformation.  
Risk of perpetuating societal inequalities,  
discriminatory practices in  
Ethical Considerations &  
Algorithmic Bias  
admissions/assessments, difficulty for  
students to understand AI decisions,  
need for unbiased algorithms and regular  
audits, cultural sensitivity required for  
diverse population. 1  
Misuse of generative AI tools Undermining educational process  
Academic Integrity &  
Page 9625  
www.rsisinternational.org  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025  
(e.g., ChatGPT) for  
assignments, challenges in  
integrity, devaluing qualifications,  
compromising originality, hindering  
Plagiarism  
accurate plagiarism detection critical thinking and writing skills, need  
(false positives/negatives).  
for robust detection and prevention  
strategies. 1  
Collection of vast personal  
data (academic records,  
behavioral patterns), risk of  
breaches, unauthorized  
access, misuse, complex  
consent issues, data retention  
concerns.  
Identity theft, damage to institutional  
reputation, violation of student rights,  
discomfort affecting learning, need for  
stringent data protection policies and  
transparent consent mechanisms. 2  
Data Privacy & Security  
Risks  
Excessive dependence on AI  
Impairment of critical thinking,  
Over-reliance on  
for solutions, reduced human independent learning, and problem-  
interaction, passive learning, solving skills; student isolation; hindered  
Technology & Impact on  
Critical Thinking  
diminished role of educators. interpersonal skills; reduced self-  
confidence and academic resilience;  
need for balanced integration and  
human-centric pedagogy. 1  
Limited digital literacy  
among students/educators,  
shortage of AI talent,  
inadequate infrastructure  
(especially rural areas),  
insufficient funding for AI  
initiatives, high initial costs,  
resistance to change.  
Moderate AI adoption rates, educational  
inequity (digital divide), challenges in  
scaling up AI initiatives, need for  
comprehensive training programs,  
sustained funding, and cultural shifts  
within institutions. 4  
Skills Gap, Infrastructure,  
& Funding Limitations  
Factors Influencing AI Adoption and Acceptance  
The successful integration and widespread acceptance of AI applications in Malaysian higher education are  
contingent upon a complex interplay of factors, ranging from individual student perceptions to overarching  
national policies and institutional initiatives. Understanding these determinants is crucial for optimizing AI  
adoption and maximizing its benefits.  
Student Perceptions and Behavioral Intentions  
Student perceptions play a pivotal role in influencing the adoption of AI tools. Studies indicate that perceived  
usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEOU) are primary determinants of AI adoption among university  
students in Malaysia.4 Perceived usefulness refers to the degree to which students believe AI applications can  
improve their academic efficiency and learning outcomes.4 If students perceive AI as beneficial for tasks such  
as proofreading, summarizing texts, or obtaining instant feedback, they are more inclined to adopt it.4  
Similarly, perceived ease of use examines how simple or intuitive students find AI applications to operate;  
tools that are difficult to understand or have a steep learning curve may discourage usage.4 Both factors  
significantly influence AI adoption, meaning students who perceive AI as beneficial and easy to use are more  
likely to integrate these applications into their academic activities.4  
Technological skills also act as a significant moderating factor in the relationship between PU, PEOU, and AI  
adoption.4 Students possessing higher digital literacy and technical proficiency are more likely to explore and  
adopt AI-powered applications with greater ease and confidence.4 Conversely, students with limited exposure  
to AI and lower technological skills exhibit lower adoption rates, even if they acknowledge the potential  
benefits.4 This highlights that technological skill gaps pose a substantial barrier to AI adoption, emphasizing  
the need for AI literacy programs and user-friendly designs to enhance uptake.4  
Page 9626  
www.rsisinternational.org  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025  
Beyond these, other critical determinants influencing the intention to adopt AI applications and mobile  
learning solutions include social influence (SI), effort expectancy (EE), hedonic motivations (HM), and  
consumer trust (TR).21 These factors collectively shape students' behavioral intentions towards AI use, with  
satisfaction having a particularly strong impact on students' use of AI in higher education curricula.12 The  
pedagogical fit of AI tools, ensuring they align with student expectations and learning objectives, also  
significantly influences their acceptance and use.12 Despite their positive correlation with AI adoption, content  
quality and perceived credibility were found to have weaker and statistically non-significant effects, suggesting  
that students may prioritize functionality and user experience over these aspects.14  
Policy Frameworks and Institutional Initiatives  
Malaysia's strategic integration of AI is guided by pivotal policy frameworks aimed at becoming a high-tech  
nation by 2030.5 The National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy 2021–2030 and the National Fourth  
Industrial Revolution Policy provide comprehensive strategies and guiding principles for ministries and  
agencies, aligning AI integration with broader national development policies like the Twelfth Malaysia Plan  
and Shared Prosperity Vision 2030.6 The National AI Roadmap 2021–2025 specifically aims to establish a  
thriving AI innovation ecosystem and encourage the development and implementation of AI solutions across  
various sectors, including education.5 The newly established National AI Office (2024) under the Ministry of  
Digital further aims to position Malaysia as a key AI player within ASEAN and globally, focusing on  
enhancing AI capabilities and promoting cross-sector collaboration.6 These policy-driven efforts underscore  
that AI integration in Malaysian HE is a deliberate, government-backed national imperative, aiming for  
national competitiveness and economic prosperity in the digital era.  
The Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) and the Malaysia Qualifications Agency are central to this  
framework, supporting academic research into AI by releasing advisory notes and guidelines on the  
responsible use of generative AI.5 This cascading effect for AI transformation extends to individual higher  
educational institutions through "smart campus" and other digital education initiatives.5 Universities like  
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, and Universiti Malaysia Pahang Al-Sultan Abdullah  
have developed internal guidelines for teachers, students, and postgraduate researchers, while Sunway  
University is also drafting its guiding principles for AI integration.6  
Significant financial investment is supporting these initiatives, with the 2025 budget expanding funding for AI  
initiatives at research universities from MYR 20 million to MYR 50 million.6 Each university is tasked with a  
unique focus area for AI research, aligned with national priorities. For instance, Universiti Malaya will  
concentrate on AI applications in medicine, particularly in cancer research. Universiti Putra Malaysia, in  
collaboration with the National Cyber Security Agency, will establish a Malaysian cryptology technology and  
management center, advancing quantum computing AI for cybersecurity. Universiti Sains Malaysia will align  
its AI research with the nation’s role as a global hub for semiconductors. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia will  
focus on AI-driven translation to elevate the status of the Malay language in scientific research. Notably,  
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia launched the first university faculty dedicated solely to AI in May 2024, funded  
by the Government of Malaysia, offering comprehensive AI programs and aiming to position Malaysia as a  
leader in AI within ASEAN and globally.6 This demonstrates a clear understanding that educational outcomes  
related to AI literacy and talent development have direct implications for Malaysia's international  
competitiveness and influence. The government also offers tax breaks to private universities developing new  
programs in digital technology, including AI, to foster high-income job creation and attract students.6  
Table 3: Factors Influencing AI Adoption among Malaysian Students  
Factor Category  
Specific  
Determinants  
Impact on AI Adoption  
Supporting  
Snippets  
4
Perceived Usefulness Students are more likely to adopt AI if  
Perceived Attributes  
of AI  
(PU)  
they believe it improves academic  
efficiency and learning outcomes (e.g.,  
proofreading, instant feedback).  
Page 9627  
www.rsisinternational.org  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025  
4
Perceived Ease of  
Use (PEOU)  
Students are more likely to adopt AI if  
they find the applications simple and  
intuitive to operate.  
12  
12  
Information  
Accuracy  
Higher perceived accuracy of AI tools  
positively influences acceptance and use.  
Pedagogical Fit  
AI tools that align well with student  
expectations and learning objectives are  
more readily accepted.  
4
Technological Skills / Higher digital literacy and technical  
Individual  
Capabilities &  
Mindset  
Digital Literacy  
proficiency lead to greater ease and  
confidence in adopting AI applications.  
Limited skills hinder adoption.  
21  
21  
21  
12  
12  
12  
Hedonic Motivations Enjoyment and pleasure derived from  
(HM)  
using AI-powered mobile learning  
solutions influence adoption intention.  
Consumer Trust (TR) Trust in AI systems significantly impacts  
the intention to use AI-powered mobile  
learning solutions.  
Social Influence (SI) The perception that important others  
(peers, instructors) use AI or expect its  
Social &  
Environmental  
Context  
use influences adoption intention.  
Effort Expectancy  
(EE)  
The degree of ease associated with using  
AI tools, influenced by social factors,  
impacts adoption intention.  
Student Interaction  
with Tools  
Positive interaction with AI tools is an  
important factor in predicting acceptance  
and use.  
Satisfaction with AI  
Integration  
Higher satisfaction with user-friendly,  
reliable, and effective AI platforms  
strongly impacts continued use.  
Comparison with other digital technologies  
The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is an established information systems framework that explains  
how users come to accept and utilize new technologies. It has been widely adopted by information systems  
researchers to address organizational challenges related to fostering the acceptance and effective use of new  
technological systems. TAM identifies two core determinants of technology adoption: perceived usefulness  
and perceived ease of use 17. The underlying premise is that the more users believe a technology will enhance  
their performance, and the easier it is to operate, the more likely they are to adopt it. Over time, additional  
variables have been incorporated to extend and strengthen the original model.  
TAM has also been used to examine factors influencing the adoption of big data initiatives. For example, TAM  
to identify determinants of big data adoption and found that perceived usefulness and perceived benefits  
significantly influenced adoption decisions, whereas perceived ease of use was not a strong predictor.  
Similarly, the variable of social influence into TAM to analyse its role in the adoption of big data within  
organizations. Their findings revealed that social influence plays a meaningful role, suggesting that collective  
attitudes and shared perceptions among individuals can contribute to successful implementation of big data  
initiatives17.  
Page 9628  
www.rsisinternational.org  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025  
Rural and Urban Institutions using Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)  
The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) provides a useful framework for understanding how different  
environments influence technology acceptance. When applied to rural and urban institutions, differences can  
be observed in the determinants of technology adoption, particularly in perceived usefulness (PU), perceived  
ease of use (PEOU), and external influencing factors such as infrastructure, digital literacy, and social  
influence.  
Table 4: Comparison Rural and Urban Institution in Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)  
Perceived Usefulness (PU)  
Aspect  
Rural Institutions  
Urban Institutions  
View of  
Technology may be perceived as useful only Technology is often perceived as essential and  
technology  
benefits  
when it clearly addresses essential needs,  
such as improving access to healthcare,  
education, or commerce.  
beneficial for improving efficiency,  
productivity, communication, and data-driven  
decision-making.  
Motivation to Driven by necessity (e.g., overcoming  
adopt geographical isolation).  
Driven by innovation and competitive  
advantage.  
Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU)  
Aspect  
Rural Institutions  
Urban Institutions  
User familiarity  
with technology  
Lower digital exposure may result in  
technology being perceived as complex  
or intimidating.  
Higher technological exposure and training  
foster confidence and ease of use.  
Support systems  
Limited technical support and training  
opportunities can reduce perceived ease  
of use.  
Availability of IT specialists, training  
programs, and digital infrastructure increases  
perceived ease of use.  
External Variables  
Aspect  
Rural Institutions  
Urban Institutions  
Infrastructure Limited internet access, unstable  
connectivity, and lack of ICT facilities  
hinder adoption.  
Stable broadband connectivity, modern ICT  
tools, and infrastructure support faster adoption.  
Digital  
literacy  
Lower levels of digital literacy may slow  
acceptance.  
Higher exposure and education lead to better  
digital competence.  
Social  
Community norms, government programs, Adoption often influenced by organizational  
influence  
or peer adoption strongly influence  
decisions.  
culture, professional networks, and market  
competition.  
Behavioral Intention and Actual Usage  
Aspect  
Rural Institutions  
Urban Institutions  
Likelihood of  
adoption  
Adoption may be slower and dependent on  
external support such as policies, subsidies, or  
training.  
Adoption is more rapid and often seen as  
inevitable for organizational growth.  
Page 9629  
www.rsisinternational.org  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025  
Usage pattern  
Technology is adopted selectively and gradually. Technology is integrated widely into  
operational and strategic functions.  
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS  
The current landscape of AI integration in Malaysian higher education is characterized by significant  
transformative potential alongside a complex array of challenges. AI applications are already enhancing  
personalized learning experiences through adaptive platforms and virtual tutors, streamlining administrative  
processes across admissions, records, and financial aid, and revolutionizing assessment methodologies with  
automated grading and nuanced feedback. Furthermore, AI is actively supporting research and academic  
development while promoting greater accessibility and inclusion for diverse learners. These advancements are  
strategically aligned with Malaysia's Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) agenda, positioning AI integration as a  
critical component of the nation's economic competitiveness and its ambition for regional AI leadership. The  
adoption of AI in HE is not merely an organic technological evolution but a deliberate, government-backed  
national imperative.  
However, the journey is fraught with critical concerns. Ethical dilemmas, particularly algorithmic bias and the  
"black box problem," pose risks to fairness and transparency. Academic integrity is challenged by the misuse  
of generative AI tools and the limitations of current plagiarism detection. Data privacy and security risks are  
paramount due to the vast amounts of personal data collected, necessitating robust protection measures and  
transparent consent mechanisms. A significant tension exists in the paradox of AI's efficiency, where over-  
reliance on technology may inadvertently impair the development of critical thinking and independent learning  
skills, diminishing human interaction crucial for holistic student development. This underscores that while AI  
offers greater efficiency, it must be balanced with the foundational educational mission of fostering deep  
cognitive abilities. Finally, existing skills gaps, infrastructure limitations, particularly in rural areas, and  
funding constraints present practical barriers to widespread and equitable AI adoption. These challenges are  
interconnected, forming a systemic problem that requires holistic and multi-faceted solutions. To navigate this  
evolving landscape effectively, a concerted and collaborative effort from all stakeholders is essential.  
Recommendations for Policy Makers  
Develop Comprehensive AI Governance and Ethical Guidelines: Policy makers should prioritize the  
development and enforcement of clear, comprehensive guidelines for AI use in education, focusing on  
ethical considerations such as algorithmic bias, data privacy, and academic integrity.5 This includes  
establishing mechanisms for regular audits of AI systems to ensure fairness and prevent discrimination,  
especially given Malaysia's diverse population.  
Invest in AI Infrastructure and Funding for Research and Implementation: Sustained and increased  
funding is crucial for upgrading digital infrastructure, particularly in underserved rural areas, to ensure  
equitable access to AI technologies across all HEIs.6 Investment should also target research and  
development in AI applications tailored to the Malaysian educational context and support pilot programs  
for effective AI integration.  
Promote AI Literacy and Talent Development: National policies should emphasize and fund programs  
aimed at enhancing AI literacy among both students and educators from early stages of education  
through higher education.4 This includes upskilling and reskilling initiatives to address the shortage of AI  
talent and prepare a workforce capable of leveraging AI for national economic growth and regional  
leadership.5  
Recommendations for Higher Education Institutions  
Integrate AI Responsibly and Ethically into Curricula and Administration: HEIs must develop  
institutional policies and frameworks for the responsible and ethical integration of AI, ensuring that AI  
tools complement rather than replace essential cognitive skills.7 This involves careful selection and  
implementation of AI applications, prioritizing those that enhance learning outcomes without  
compromising academic integrity or student privacy.  
Page 9630  
www.rsisinternational.org  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025  
Prioritize Faculty Training and Professional Development: Institutions should invest significantly in  
continuous professional development programs for educators, equipping them with the necessary skills to  
effectively use, evaluate, and critically engage with AI tools.15 This training should also address  
pedagogical shifts required to integrate AI in a way that fosters critical thinking and deep learning.  
Foster a Balanced Approach to AI Use, Emphasizing Critical Thinking: HEIs should design learning  
experiences that encourage active participation and critical evaluation of AI-generated information, rather  
than passive consumption.17 This involves promoting human interaction, mentorship, and probslem-  
solving skills that are essential for holistic student development and cannot be replicated by AI.19  
Recommendations for Students  
Develop AI Literacy and Critical Evaluation Skills: Students should actively seek opportunities to  
enhance their understanding of AI concepts, its applications, and its limitations.4 Developing critical  
evaluation skills is paramount to discern reliable information from AI-generated content and avoid over-  
reliance.18  
Understand the Ethical Implications of AI Tool Usage: Students must be aware of the ethical  
considerations associated with AI tools, including data privacy, academic integrity, and potential biases.4  
Responsible and ethical use of AI tools is crucial for maintaining academic honesty and protecting  
personal data.  
By adopting these recommendations, Malaysian highssser education can harness the full potential of AI to  
create more engaging, inclusive, and efficient learning environments, thereby preparing students for the  
challenges of the digital age and contributing to Malaysia's strategic national objectives.  
REFERENCES  
1. (PDF) Embracing Artificial Intelligence as a Catalyst for Change in ..., accessed July 24, 2025,  
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/386268161_Embracing_Artificial_Intelligence_as_a_Catalyst_  
for_Change_in_Reshaping_Malaysian_Higher_Education_in_the_Digital_Era_A_Literature_Review  
2. The Impact of AI on Modern Education: Transforming Learning ..., accessed July 24, 2025,  
https://blog.fame.edu.my/impact-of-ai-on-modern_education/  
3. AI causing changes in higher education strategies | Daily Express Malaysia, accessed July 24, 2025,  
https://www.dailyexpress.com.my/read/5902/ai-causing-changes-in-higher-education-strategies/  
4. ANALYSIS OF THE USAGE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI ..., accessed July 24, 2025,  
http://www.ijitsc.net/index.php/journal/article/view/142/88  
5. MALAYSIA - International Science Council, accessed July 24, 2025, https://council.science/wp-  
content/uploads/2025/02/AI-Paper-Case-Study-Malaysia_V1.pdf  
6. MALAYSIA - International Science Council, accessed July 24, 2025, https://council.science/wp-  
content/uploads/2025/02/AI-Paper-Case-Study-Malaysia_V2.pdf  
7. The Impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Education Systems ..., accessed July 24, 2025, https://sciety-  
labs.elifesciences.org/articles/by?article_doi=10.21203/rs.3.rs-6987750/v1  
8. (PDF) Challenges and Opportunities of Artificial Intelligence (AI) for ..., accessed July 24, 2025,  
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392402991_Challenges_and_Opportunities_of_Artificial_Intel  
ligence_AI_for_Malaysian_Higher_Education_An_Exploratory_Analysis  
9. (PDF) The Impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Education Systems: Evidence From Malaysia -  
ResearchGate,  
accessed  
July  
24,  
2025,  
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/393282739_The_Impact_of_Artificial_Intelligence_AI_in_Ed  
ucation_Systems_Evidence_From_Malaysia  
10. (PDF) Effects of Intelligent Tutoring Systems on Educational Outcomes:, accessed July 24, 2025,  
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/388787652_Effects_of_Intelligent_Tutoring_Systems_on_Edu  
cational_Outcomes  
11. Implementing artificial intelligence in academic and ... - Frontiers, accessed July 24, 2025,  
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/education/articles/10.3389/feduc.2025.1548104/full  
12. (PDF) Investigating AI-based academic support acceptance and its ..., accessed July 24, 2025,  
Page 9631  
www.rsisinternational.org  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025  
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/378942128_Investigating_AI-  
based_academic_support_acceptance_and_its_impact_on_students'_performance_in_Malaysian_and_Pa  
kistani_higher_education_institutions  
13. A Methodological Framework for AI-Integrated Alternative Assessments in Engineering Education -  
UKM, accessed July 24, 2025, https://www.ukm.my/jkukm/wp-content/uploads/2025/3702/20.pdf  
14. (PDF) Understanding the role of AI in Malaysian higher education curricula: an analysis of student  
perceptions  
-
ResearchGate,  
accessed  
July  
24,  
2025,  
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/391368432_Understanding_the_role_of_AI_in_Malaysian_hig  
her_education_curricula_an_analysis_of_student_perceptions  
15. The Challenges of Higher Education Students Face in Using ..., accessed July 24, 2025,  
https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=136877  
16. Malaysia  
-
ohchr,  
accessed  
July  
24,  
2025,  
https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/education/cfis/ai-  
education/submissions/subm-artificial-intelligence-sta-malaysia.docx  
17. Davis, F.D. (1989). Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information  
Technology. MIS Quarterly, 13 (3), 319.  
18. AI In Malaysia's Education  
–
OpEd  
-
Eurasia Review, accessed July 24, 2025,  
https://www.eurasiareview.com/02012025-ai-in-malaysias-education-oped/  
19. AI In Malaysian Education: The Good, The Bad, The Ugly - BusinessToday Malaysia, accessed July 24,  
2025, https://www.businesstoday.com.my/2025/02/23/ai-in-malaysian-education-the-good-the-bad-the-  
ugly/  
20. (PDF) Navigating AI Ethics in Malaysian Universities: Addressing ..., accessed July 24, 2025,  
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/389100884_Navigating_AI_Ethics_in_Malaysian_Universities  
_Addressing_Privacy_Integrity_and_Bias  
21. Understanding AI and Mobile Learning Adoption in Malaysian ..., accessed July 24, 2025, https://online-  
journals.org/index.php/i-jim/article/view/52977  
Page 9632  
www.rsisinternational.org