INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue X October 2025  
Assessing the Effects of Climate Change on Mental Health of  
Smallholder Farmers  
Natasha Lukwesa, George Phiri  
Mulungushi University  
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000794  
Received: 02 November 2025; Accepted: 10 November 2025; Published: 24 November 2025  
ABSTRACT  
This study was designed to assess the effects of climate change like droughts and erratic rainfall on mental health  
of smallholder farmers in Palabana Farming Block. The study employed a mixed-method approach using both  
quantitative and qualitative techniques to gather data from 125 smallholder farmers. Quantitative methods  
consisted of Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview as a structured questionnaire, surveys and statistical  
analysis. The responses from the questionnaires were coded and analyzed using STATA Statistical Package.  
Qualitative approaches consisted of interviews to assess the farmers’ experiences with climate-related challenges  
and their mental health. Additionally, the study explored coping mechanisms employed by farmers, including  
community-based support systems and adaptive farming strategies. Results showed high rates of depression  
(26.4%), anxiety (25.6%), trouble sleeping (24 %), and stress (21.6%) among smallholder farmers. Coping  
strategies such as alternative income activities and emotional support were common, yet not significantly linked  
to better mental health outcomes. Community programs like the Farmer Input Support Program (FISP) and  
savings groups were widely accessed but mental health services remained underutilized (5.6%). However, 70%  
of the farmers perceived community support as helpful. The findings suggest urgent need for integrated mental  
health and climate resilience programs to support farmers' psychological well-being in the midst of climate  
variability.  
Key words: Climate Change; mental health; coping mechanisms; Climate resilience; Smallholder Farmers.  
INTRODUCTION  
Climate change has emerged as one of the most pressing global challenges, affecting both environmental stability  
and human livelihoods. While its physical consequences, such as extreme weather events and reduced  
agricultural yields, have been widely studied, the psychological toll it exerts on vulnerable populations remains  
underexplored. Smallholder farmers, who depend directly on climate-sensitive agricultural practices for survival,  
are particularly susceptible to the mental health impacts of climate change. In many African countries, including  
Zambia, a large segment of the population depends on land for their daily survival. In Zambia, land serves  
multiple purposes, with agriculture being the predominant use, particularly in rural areas (Chisenga et. al., 2024).  
The agriculture sector generates about 18% to 20% of the country’s GDP and provides a livelihood for more  
than 60% of the population (Kunda, 2022). These rural regions are often characterized by high poverty rates and  
rising unemployment, highlighting the importance of smallholder farming. Smallholder farmers depend heavily  
on rain-fed agriculture, are particularly vulnerable to climate variability, experiencing prolonged droughts,  
erratic rainfall, and extreme weather events (Jain, 2007). These environmental stressors can lead to crop failures,  
food insecurity, and financial instability, which in turn contribute to psychological distress, anxiety, and  
depression among farming communities (Clayton et. al., 2023).  
Climate Change and Agricultural Vulnerability  
In Africa, particularly in sub-Saharan regions, rising temperatures and declining rainfall patterns pose significant  
threats to small-scale agriculture (Jacqueline & Mubanga, 2020). These climatic shifts are expected to reduce  
crop yields and overall agricultural productivity, exacerbating food insecurity, particularly among rural  
households that rely on subsistence farming (Siamachoka & Kabwe Harnadih Mubanga, 2024, Jacqueline &  
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Mubanga, 2020). The increasing frequency of extreme weather events further compounds these challenges,  
highlighting the urgent need for adaptive strategies to enhance agricultural resilience.  
In sub-Saharan Africa, staple crops such as maize, sorghum, and millet are particularly vulnerable to climatic  
variability (Adan et. al., 2023, Siamachoka & Kabwe Harnadih Mubanga, 2024). Empirical evidence suggests  
that the yields of most crops could decline by 2050 due to rising temperatures and shifting rainfall patterns (Jain,  
2007). Furthermore, erratic weather conditions increase the prevalence of pests and diseases, further threatening  
food production and rural livelihoods. Climate change has led to prolonged droughts, erratic rainfall, and extreme  
temperatures, significantly impacting crop yields and livestock health (IPCC, 2022).  
In Zambia, smallholder farmers in areas like Chongwe District's semi-rural Palabana Farming Block depend on  
the region's seasonal rainfall. Food insecurity and economic suffering have resulted from decreased agricultural  
yields and animal losses brought on by increasing climate unpredictability (Kunda, 2022). Many farmers  
consequently suffer from increased stress, depression, and other mental health issues (Talukder et. al., 2021).  
There is currently little research on how Zambian climate change is affecting mental health, especially among  
smallholder farmers. Studies that are now accessible mostly concentrate on financial losses and adaptation  
tactics, overlooking the mental health of farmers.  
Psychological Stressors Induced by Climate Variability  
Research has shown that climate-induced hardships contribute to increased anxiety, depression, and emotional  
distress among farming communities (Berry et. al., 2018). The unpredictability of weather patterns creates  
uncertainty, leading to chronic stress, feelings of helplessness, and a loss of control over one’s livelihood  
(Massazza et. al., 2022 & Yazd et. al., 2019). Studies have established a strong correlation between climate  
change-induced stressors and heightened levels of anxiety and depression among smallholder farmers. Research  
by Berry et. al., (2011) emphasizes that persistent exposure to climatic stressors, such as prolonged droughts and  
unexpected floods, leads to chronic worry about crop yields, food security, and economic sustainability.  
In Zambia, a study by Phiri et. al., (2019) found that farmers experiencing crop failures due to erratic rainfall  
reported symptoms of depression and generalized anxiety. Extreme weather events such as floods and prolonged  
droughts can be traumatic experiences for farmers. A study conducted by Clayton et. al., (2017) noted that  
natural disasters lead to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) among affected populations, particularly farmers  
whose livelihoods are directly tied to land productivity. Research indicates a disturbing trend in increased suicide  
rates among farmers facing extreme climate challenges. Studies in India and Australia (Hanigan et. al., 2012)  
have found a link between prolonged droughts and increased suicide rates among farmers. While specific data  
for Zambia is limited, anecdotal evidence suggests that economic hardships caused by climate change can lead  
to hopelessness and suicidal thoughts among smallholder farmers.  
Socio-economic and Cultural Factors Influencing Mental Health  
Mental health among farmers is shaped by a complex interplay of socio-economic and cultural factors. Due to  
the nature of agricultural work, farmers face unique stressors that impact their mental well-being. These factors  
include financial insecurity, climate variability, social expectations, and cultural beliefs about mental health.  
Smallholder farmers worldwide face significant economic struggles and financial insecurity due to their heavy  
reliance on seasonal rainfall, making them highly susceptible to climate variability. Small holder farmers'  
livelihoods are being adversely affected by the increasing effects of climate change on agricultural productivity  
(Schramski et. al., 2015). Farmers with limited access to financial aid or insurance schemes are particularly  
vulnerable to mental health challenges. The severe droughts in Zambia have led to significant economic  
hardships for smallholder farmers (Chisenga et. al., 2024).  
Coping Mechanisms  
Collaboration and Social support play a crucial role in mitigating the mental health challenges among farmers.  
According to Koutsouris (2014), "strong social networks among farmers contribute to better mental health  
outcomes by providing emotional support and reducing stress levels." Family, friends, and community  
organizations can offer moral and financial support, helping farmers navigate economic hardships and emotional  
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struggles. Furthermore, adaptive coping mechanisms such as participation in cooperative farming, financial  
literacy programs, and peer support groups can provide farmers with practical ways to manage stress.  
A study by Bryant & Garnham (2015) highlighted that "engaging in group discussions about farming-related  
challenges significantly reduces anxiety and promotes mental resilience." Implementing community-based  
mental health initiatives tailored to farmers' needs can enhance their psychological well-being and reduce the  
risk of severe mental health conditions. The presence of strong community networks and support systems can  
mitigate the psychological burden of climate change.  
Research by Tschakert et. al., (2014) highlights the role of social capital in helping farmers adapt to climate  
stress. However, in areas like Palabana, where rural communities are often underserved in mental health services,  
the lack of professional psychological support exacerbates farmers' distress.  
Problem Statement  
Climate change has significantly impacted agricultural productivity worldwide, and smallholder farmers in  
Zambia are no exception. The region has experienced erratic rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, and increasing  
temperatures, all of which contribute to reduced crop yields and livestock productivity (Jacqueline & Mubanga,  
2020). Smallholder Farmers are reported to have increased stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms, particularly  
during prolonged dry spells or after experiencing heavy financial losses due to climate-induced crop failure  
(Touch et. al., 2024, Abunyewah et. al., 2024). However, there is limited research on the specific mental health  
effects of climate change on mental health among farmers and how they cope with psychological distress. This  
study seeks to bridge this gap by assessing the effects of climate change on the mental health of farmers in  
Palabana Farming Block of Chongwe.  
Objectives  
Main Objective  
To assess the impacts of climate change on the mental health of small holder farmers in Njolwe camp, Palabana  
farming block.  
Specific Objectives  
1. Evaluate the prevalence of mental health disorders among smallholder farmers affected by climate  
change over the last decade.  
2. To analyze the relationship between climate change (e.g., droughts, floods, erratic rainfall) and farmers'  
mental well-being.  
3. Explore the coping strategies employed by farmers to manage psychological stress related to climate  
variability.  
4. Evaluate the effectiveness of community networks and support systems (e.g. FISP, mental health  
services) in mitigating the mental impacts like depression, anxiety and stress experienced by farmers due  
to climate change.  
Research Questions  
1. What is the prevalence of mental health disorders among smallholder farmers in the Palabana farming  
block as a result of climate change over the last decade?  
2. How have changing weather patterns (e.g., droughts, floods, erratic rainfall) affected farmers' mental  
well-being?  
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3. What coping mechanisms do smallholder farmers employ to deal with the mental stress associated with  
climate variability?  
4. How effective are community networks and support systems (e.g. FISP, mental health services) in  
alleviating the mental impacts of climate change on smallholder farmers?  
Conceptual Framework  
With a particular focus on how stressors affect psychological well-being (e.g., stress, anxiety, depression,  
PTSD), the conceptual framework explains how climate change stressors (e.g., extreme weather events, drought,  
flooding) affect the mental health of smallholder farmers in the Palabana Farming Block. The dependent  
variable (mental health impacts), which is impacted by coping techniques and adaptation tactics, is influenced  
by the independent factors (social disruptions, economic effects, and stressors associated with climate change).  
The relationships described in the framework are shown below (Figure 1).  
The conceptual framework suggests important connections between environmental stresses, psychological  
impacts, and coping strategies. These connections are obtainable by synthesizing the body of research on the  
subject regarding climate change and smallholder farmers’ mental health.  
Figure 1: Conceptual Model Diagram:  
Operational Definition of terms  
Climate Change  
Climate change refers to a significant alteration in the climate system, identified by changes in temperature,  
precipitation, or wind patterns, lasting for decades or longer. These changes may be due to natural processes or  
human activities, such as deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases. (IPCC, 2021)  
Mental Health  
Mental health refers to a person’s emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It affects how individuals  
think, feel, and act, as well as how they handle stress, relate to others, and make decisions. Good mental health  
is essential for overall health and functioning. (World Health Organization (WHO, 2022)  
Smallholder Farmers  
Smallholder farmers are individuals or households who manage small plots of land, typically less than two  
hectares, primarily for subsistence. They often rely on family labor, have limited access to resources and markets,  
and are highly vulnerable to climate variability. (Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2021)  
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Adaptation  
Adaptation refers to the process of adjusting to actual or expected climate and its effects. In human systems, it  
seeks to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities to enhance resilience. (IPCC, 2021)  
Resilience  
Resilience is the capacity of individuals, communities, or systems to anticipate, prepare for, respond to, and  
recover from adverse events—such as climate shocks—while maintaining essential functions and structures.  
(IPCC, 2021)  
Livelihood  
A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets, and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is  
sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks while maintaining or enhancing its  
capabilities and assets. (Chambers & Conway, 1992)  
Climate Variability  
Climate variability refers to short- to medium-term fluctuations in climate patterns, such as temperature and  
rainfall that occur naturally over months, years, or decades. It is different from long-term climate change but can  
still have significant impacts on agriculture and livelihoods. (IPCC, 2021)  
Expected relationships between Concepts  
Climate Change and Mental Health Outcomes  
Drought, flooding, erratic rainfall patterns, and crop failure are examples of climate stress that worsens  
smallholder farmers' mental health. Feelings of tension, worry, and helplessness can result from these stresses  
(Berry et. al., 2018). Climate change's unpredictability could lead to a persistent worry of crop failure in the  
future, which would make anxiety and despair even worse (Uppal, 2016).  
Mental Health Outcomes and Coping mechanisms  
A farmer's decision-making and capacity to handle climate shocks are adversely affected by poor mental health  
(Chandran et. al., 2020). Depression, for instance, might make it more difficult for them to run their farm  
efficiently, which would result in lower yields and a poorer ability to adapt to climate change. Additionally,  
mental health problems weaken resilience, which limits a farmer's ability to adjust to economic uncertainty and  
climatic change (Mertz et. al., 2009).  
METHODOLOGY  
Research Design  
This study employed a mixed-method research design. This method involved the integration of qualitative and  
quantitative approaches that allowed for a comprehensive understanding of both statistical trends and personal  
experiences. The rationale for using the mixed method was that it was expected that by combining qualitative  
and quantitative approaches, the study would provide a holistic analysis of the impact of mental health on  
smallholder farmers as the methods do complement one another to enable us to understand the effects of climate  
change.  
Study Site  
The study was conducted in Njolwe camp in Palabana farming block of Chongwe district. Njolwe camp is a  
semi-rural agricultural zone about 60 km east of Lusaka in Chongwe District, Lusaka Province, Zambia. It is an  
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agro-ecological Zone area, which is defined by moderate rainfall (800–1,000 mm per year) and temperature  
range between 15°C to 30°C (Siamachoka & Kabwe Harnadih Mubanga, 2024).  
Figure 1 A Map Showing Chongwe District in Lusaka Province of Zambia  
-
Sampling Techniques and Sample size calculations  
A purposive sampling technique was used to select key informants who included Agricultural extension officers  
(02) and Health worker (01). The officers were considered due to their role of being directly involved in the  
education and monitoring of the farmers in Njolwe camp. In addition, 125 out of 180 smallholder farmers who  
were beneficiaries of the FISP were selected using simple random sampling. A large proportion of the  
participants were involved in mixed farming. The participants were involved in livestock farming and had been  
actively engaged in small-scale crop production for at least two consecutive farming seasons The following  
Slovin formula was used to come up with the sample size:  
n =  
2
1+  
Where:  
● n = sample size  
● N = total population (180 farmers)  
● e = margin of error (commonly 5% or 0.05)  
Calculation (with 5% margin of error)  
Final Sample Size: 125 farmers (with a 5% margin of error).  
This sample was chosen to ensure representativeness in terms of gender, age, farming experience, and geographic  
location within Chongwe district, which are relevant factors for understanding the implementation and outcomes  
of the FISP in the community.  
Data Collection  
Both primary and secondary sources of data were collected. For the purpose of this study, questionnaires,  
interviews and focused group discussions were simultaneously used in collecting primary data. The data  
collection instruments were analysed by experts pretested to yield reliability and face validity. Secondary data  
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was gathered from various sources. In addition, peer-reviewed journal articles from databases such as PubMed  
and Science Direct, reports from world health organization were reviewed and data extracted.  
Data Analysis  
STATA version 8 statistical package was used for data analysis, as it was the only one readily available. Both  
qualitative and quantitative data collected were manually coded and analyzed using descriptive statistics and  
frequencies. The qualitative information from questionnaires and interviews was coded based on the frequency  
of common recurring concepts in relation to mental health experiences by the participants. The main themes  
were centered on mental health issues like anxiety, depression, and trauma among the respondents. The  
information was transcribed and imported into Excel. In regard to quantitative data, the coding of the transcripts,  
Stata 8 was used to summarize the frequency distributions and to support thematic patterns that surfaced from  
the data. Multinomial logistic regression was used to find relationship between Climate Change Effects and  
Mental Health. The Cross-tabulation with Chi-square was used to find any association between coping strategies,  
support system and mental health status.  
Informed Consent  
The researcher gave the participants sufficient information on the study for them to make informed decisions  
about their participation. It was made clear that any participant would be free to withdraw from the study at any  
time. No respondent was forced to give information during the study. Codes where used for the participants  
instead of names to maintain their identity confidential.  
Ethical Considerations  
The researchers obtained ethical approval from Mulungushi University, under the Directorate of Research and  
Post graduate studies and Chongwe district health office in order to conduct the study on climate change and  
mental health among small holder farmers in the community.  
RESULTS  
Respondents Demographics  
The sample consisted of 125 smallholder farmers. The majority were aged between 31–45 years (38.4%) and  
46–60 years (32.0%):  
Table 1: Respondents Demographics  
Variable description  
Age  
Frequency  
Percentage (%)  
18-30  
24  
48  
40  
13  
68  
57  
19.20  
38.40  
32.00  
10.40  
54.40  
45.60  
31-45  
46-60  
Above 60  
Gender  
Female  
Male  
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Marital status  
Divorced  
9
7.20  
Marred  
90  
11  
15  
72.00  
8.80  
Single  
Widowed  
12.00  
Number of years in farming  
Less than 5  
11  
41  
73  
8.80  
5-10  
32.80  
58.40  
More than 10  
Type of farming  
Crop farming  
Livestock farming  
Mixed farming  
64  
9
51.20  
7.20  
52  
41.60  
The gender distribution showed a higher proportion of female respondents (54.4%) compared to males (45.6%).  
Most respondents were married (72.0%), while a significant portion (25.6%) had no formal education. The  
majority (58.4%) had over ten years of farming experience, and crop farming was the predominant activity  
(51.2%). (Table 1):  
Prevalence of Mental Health Disorders  
To evaluate the prevalence of mental health disorders among smallholder farmers in the Palabana farming block  
as a result of climate change, the participants were assessed over metal conditions using a Mini International  
Neuropsychiatric Interview as a structured questionnaire, surveys where they indicated whether or not they had  
experienced mental health problems due to climate change. Some examples of items in this category would  
include:  
1. ‘In the past year, have you experienced any of the following symptoms due to climate change?’ (Check all  
that apply)  
● Persistent sadness or depression  
● Loss of interest in farming or daily activities  
● Trouble concentrating or making decisions  
● Fatigue or low energy  
● Unexplained physical pain (e.g., headaches, stomach aches)  
● No effect  
Findings showed that mental health symptoms were prevalent among smallholder farmers. A total of 105  
respondents (84%) reported symptoms indicative of depression, such as persistent sadness, loss of interest in  
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daily activities, and fatigue. Only 16% of participants did not report such symptoms. Symptoms consistent with  
generalized anxiety disorder were reported by 120 farmers (96%), with just 4% of the sample not experiencing  
such symptoms.  
2. ‘How have these climate change effects affected your mental well-being? (Select all that apply)’  
○ Anxiety about future farming seasons  
○ Feelings of hopelessness or depression  
○ Trouble sleeping  
○ Suicidal thoughts  
○ Increased Post Traumatic stress  
○ No effect  
Figure 2: Prevalence of Mental Health Disorders among Farmers  
Among the participants, 83 (66.4%) reported post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) like symptoms including  
nightmares, flashbacks, emotional numbness, and hypervigilance. The remaining 33.6% did not report such  
experiences. (Fig 2)  
Relationship between Climate Change and Mental Health  
To assess the relationship between Climate Change and mental health, and whether changing weather patterns  
has an effect on the farmers' mental well-being, a multinomial logistic regression was conducted to examine the  
relationship between different climate events and mental health outcomes among respondents.  
Mental health outcomes included anxiety, depression (used as the base outcome), trouble sleeping, stress, and  
suicidal thoughts, while climate events included droughts, unpredictable rainfall, and prolonged dry spells,  
extreme temperatures, and floods. Results showed that the overall model was not statistically significant (LR χ²  
(16) = 16.89, p= 0.3926), with a Pseudo R² value of 0.0462, suggesting that climate events explain a small  
proportion (approximately 4.6%) of the variance in mental health status.  
Climate change and Anxiety:  
The association between prolonged dry spells and anxiety approached statistical significance (coefficient = -  
1.35, p = 0.053), indicating that experiencing prolonged dry spells was associated with lower odds of anxiety  
compared to depression. However, other climate events did not significantly predict anxiety.  
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Trouble Sleeping and Stress: None of the climate events were statistically significant predictors of trouble  
sleeping or stress. Suicidal Thoughts: The estimates for suicidal thoughts exhibited extremely large standard  
errors and non-significant p-values, suggesting model instability likely due to the rarity of suicidal thoughts in  
the sample.  
Predicted Probabilities  
Predicted probabilities provided additional insight: Respondents who were experiencing unpredictable rainfall  
patterns had the highest probability of reporting anxiety (0.375) and depression (0.333), both statistically  
significant (p < 0.001). Floods were associated with the highest predicted probability of reporting trouble  
sleeping (0.375). Extreme temperatures and prolonged dry spells had relatively higher predicted probabilities for  
stress (~0.266 and ~0.243, respectively). Predicted probabilities for suicidal thoughts were near zero across all  
climate events.  
Figure 3: Predicted Probabilities  
Coping Strategies for Psychological Stress  
The study also investigated the coping mechanisms used by smallholder farmers to deal with the mental stress  
associated with climate variability. A total of 125 respondents reported various coping strategies in response to  
climate-related stressors. For instance the participants were asked:  
4. ‘What strategies do you use to cope with climate change-related stress? (Select all that apply)  
● Seeking financial support (loans, grants)  
● Seeking emotional support from family or community  
● Engaging in alternative income-generating activities  
● Practicing religious/spiritual coping methods  
● Drinking alcohol or using substances  
● Ignoring the problem  
The most reported strategy was engaging in alternative income-generating activities (30.4%), followed by  
seeking emotional support from family or friends (24.0%), and seeking financial support such as loans or grants  
(21.6%). Other strategies included practicing religious or spiritual coping mechanisms (19.2%), drinking alcohol  
or using substances (4.0%), and using emergency funds or cash-for-work programs (0.8%).  
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Relationship between Coping Strategies and Mental Health Outcomes  
A cross-tabulation of coping strategies by mental health outcomes revealed varying patterns Among the  
respondents who engaged in alternative income-generating activities, mental health outcomes experienced were  
depression (34.21%), anxiety (26.32%) followed by stress (18.42%). Religious or spiritual coping was also  
frequently associated with depression (33.33%) and trouble sleeping (25.00%). Emotional support seekers  
reported the highest proportion of anxiety (33.33%) and trouble sleeping (30.00%), with relatively lower levels  
of depression (10.00%). Financial support seekers had similar mental health profiles, with notable rates of trouble  
sleeping (29.63%), depression (25.93%), and anxiety (22.22%). Substance users showed a higher prevalence of  
stress (40.00%) and depression (40.00%), though the sample size for this group was very small (n = 5).  
Emergency fund users (n = 1) reported only trouble sleeping (100%). Despite these patterns, no strong  
association between coping strategies and specific mental health outcomes was evident.  
Figure 4: Strategies used by Small holder Farmers to cope with stress  
Statistical Association  
A Pearson chi-square test of independence was performed to assess the relationship between coping strategy and  
mental health outcome. The test yielded a chi-square statistic of χ² (20) = 16.77, with a p-value of 0.668. This  
indicates that there was no statistically significant association between the type of coping strategy employed and  
mental health outcomes among the respondents (p > 0.05). Thus, while certain trends were observed  
descriptively, they were not statistically robust.  
Perceived Helpfulness of Community Support Systems  
To assess the role of the community support systems in mitigating the mental impacts of climate change among  
small holder farmers, the farmers were solicited for their opinion regarding the effectiveness of the support  
systems. The study assessed respondents’ perceptions regarding the effectiveness of existing community support  
systems (i.e. Farmer cooperatives, Savings and credit groups) in helping them cope with climate-related  
stressors.  
For instance the participants were asked:  
5. ‘Do you feel that existing community support systems (e.g., farmer cooperatives, religious groups) help  
reduce stress and anxiety?’  
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Yes No Somewhat  
Results showed that out of 125 respondents: 71.2% (n = 89) reported that they felt existing support systems  
helped them ("Yes"), 26.4% (n = 33) said they did not feel supported ("No"). Only 2.4% (n = 3) reported feeling  
"somewhat" helped. This distribution indicates that most respondents perceived community support structures  
as effective in assisting them during times of climate stress (Fig 5)  
Figure 5: Cross tabulation between Support Systems and mental health  
Relationship between Perceived Help and Type of Support Accessed  
A cross-tabulation was conducted to explore the relationship between perceived helpfulness and the specific  
support systems accessed: Among those who felt supported ("Yes"): The most accessed support system was the  
Farmer Input Support Program (FISP) (33.71%), followed by climate-smart agriculture training (20.22%) and  
cash-for-work programs (16.85%). Among those who did not feel supported ("No"): Access was mainly through  
climate-smart agriculture training (27.27%), FISP (27.27%), and savings and credit groups (24.24%). Those  
who answered "somewhat" mostly accessed FISP (66.67%) and savings groups (33.33%). Thus, although a large  
number accessed FISP and climate-smart agriculture training, perceptions of supportiveness varied, with some  
individuals still reporting dissatisfaction.  
Statistical Association  
The Pearson chi-square test yielded a statistic of χ² (12) = 10.26 with a p-value of 0.593. This indicates that there  
was no statistically significant association between the type of support system accessed and whether respondents  
felt supported (p > 0.05).  
DISCUSSION  
Introduction  
This study aimed to evaluate the psychological impact of climate change among smallholder farmers, focusing  
on four specific objectives. This section is a discussion of the findings based on the objectives of the study. The  
results underscore the growing mental health burden on farming communities, reflecting broader global trends  
where climate change acts as a multiplier threat for mental health risks.  
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Prevalence of Mental Health Disorders  
The results showed high prevalence of mental health symptoms amount small holder farmers: depression (84%),  
anxiety (96%) and PTSD (66.4%). These findings are consistent with prior studies that identified agriculture as  
a high-risk occupation for mental health disorders, especially in the context of environmental stressors  
(Lawrance et al., 2022). The extraordinarily high anxiety levels suggest chronic stress and worry, potentially  
fueled by uncertain weather patterns, repeated crop failures, and economic instability. Similarly, the high  
depression rate may reflect "the psychosocial cost of environmental degradation. The high prevalence of PTSD  
among small holder farmers (66.4%) is likely to be linked to exposure to traumatic events such as droughts,  
floods, or land conflicts (Shoko Kori, 2023). This is consistent with findings from Cunsolo and Ellis (2018), who  
argue that experiences of environmental trauma can produce symptoms that mirror classic PTSD, especially in  
communities exposed to repeated ecological shocks.  
Relationship between Climate Change Effects and Mental Well-Being  
The relationship between climate events (droughts, erratic rainfall, floods) and mental health outcomes was  
analyzed using multinomial logistic regression. The overall results were not statistically significant (p = 0.3926).  
However, descriptive trends showed that unpredictable rainfall and prolonged dry spells were associated with  
higher anxiety and depression levels. These finding echoes research by Berry et al., (2011), who concluded that  
climate variability acts as a chronic stressor for rural populations, leading to cumulative mental health challenges.  
However, the low explanatory power (Pseudo R² = 4.6%) suggests that climate stress tends to interact with other  
factors like poverty, limited healthcare access, and social isolation, making mental health outcomes  
multifactorial (Bryant & Garnham, 2015).  
Coping Strategies for Psychological Stress  
Farmers adopted diverse coping strategies: alternative income-generating activities (30.4%), emotional support  
(24.0%), financial support (21.6%), and religious coping (19.2%). Despite these strategies, no statistically  
significant association emerged between coping methods and mental health outcomes (χ² (20) = 16.77, p =  
0.668). This reflects findings by Bedaso et. al., (2021), who argue that coping strategies among vulnerable groups  
are often reactive and insufficient without systemic support. Moreover, maladaptive coping like substance abuse  
(4%) was associated with higher stress levels, echoing concerns that harmful coping behaviors may worsen  
mental health during climate crises (Doherty & Clayton, 2011, Njeru et al., 2022).  
Role of Community Networks and Support Systems  
Although the chi-square test did not reveal a significant relationship (p = 0.598), the descriptive trends suggest  
that certain support systems particularly farmer input support are more frequently associated with mental health  
issues. This may indicate an over-reliance on agricultural-based aid without accompanying psychological or  
emotional support mechanisms. Lawrance et. al., (2022) argues that, purely economic or input-based  
interventions are often insufficient in addressing underlying psychological distress. Without mental health  
components, such programs may alleviate material needs while leaving psychosocial needs unmet.  
There was a low number of participants who reported having access to Mental Health services (5.6% of the  
participants) across all mental health categories. This aligns with findings by Abunyewah et. al., (2024), who  
noted a significant global treatment gap in mental health services especially in low-income settings. Barriers  
such as stigma, limited-service availability, and lack of awareness could explain the underutilization of mental  
health services. Lawrance et. al., (2022) highlight that even when economic supports are present, unaddressed  
psychological needs can persist, especially among vulnerable populations.  
High percentages of stress and sleep difficulties were found among those participating in Cash for Work and  
Farmer Input Support programs. These findings emphasize the need for integrated support systems that combine  
livelihood assistance with direct psychological services. This highlights the importance of integrated  
development approaches that embed mental health care into broader social protection programs, in line with the  
WHO’s Mental Health Gap Action Programme (MHGAP) guidelines (WHO, 2008).  
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Limitations Of The Study  
Despite the valuable insights generated, this study had several limitations that should be considered when  
interpreting the findings:  
The study was conducted in a single rural district, and while it provides important localized data, the  
findings may not be fully generalizable to all smallholder farmers across other regions or countries.  
The study used a cross-sectional design, capturing data at a single point in time. This limits the ability to  
establish causal relationships between climate-related stressors and mental health outcomes or to observe  
changes over time.  
Given the rural setting and potential literacy limitations, there were challenges in fully conveying or  
understanding clinical mental health terms, even when efforts were made to translate them into local  
languages.  
The collection of data was done during rainy season which made it a challenge to be able to access the  
farmers all in one place as most times they were busy with farm work.  
Getting permission from Chongwe District Health office to be allowed to conduct the research was also  
challenging as it took some time to be approved.  
CONCLUSIONS  
This study confirms that mental health disorders are prevalent among smallholder farmers exposed to climate  
variability, with depression and anxiety being the most reported symptoms. While climate change events such  
as unpredictable rainfall and prolonged dry spells contribute to psychological distress, they are not the sole  
determinants. Farmers employed various coping strategies and relied heavily on agricultural and financial  
support programs; however, these measures were not strongly associated with improved mental health outcomes.  
Furthermore, access to mental health-specific services was limited, highlighting a critical service gap.  
Community support systems provide vital assistance and emotional encouragement, yet addressing the  
psychological dimension of climate resilience remains a pressing need. Overall, the findings emphasize that  
addressing farmers' mental health in the context of climate change requires an integrated, multisectoral approach  
that includes environmental, social, and psychological interventions.  
RECOMMENDATIONS  
Based on the findings, the following recommendations are made:  
The high prevalence of mental health symptoms among small holder farmers linked with depression and  
anxiety suggest the need for expanding Access to Mental Health Services in Rural Areas and Integration  
of Mental Health Support into Agricultural Programs:  
Support programs like Farmer Input Support Program (FISP) and climate-smart agriculture training  
should incorporate mental health education and counselling services to offer holistic support to the  
farmers in rural areas and strengthen diversify of coping mechanisms. This should include promoting  
resilience-building activities, such as skills training, microfinance initiatives, and cooperative farming  
models, to reduce economic vulnerability and enhance psychological well-being.  
Enhance Community-Based Support Networks: There is need for promoting integrated development  
approaches that embed mental health care into broader social protection programs Expand peer support  
groups and community-based mental health initiatives that can offer culturally sensitive support, de-  
stigmatizing mental health issues among small holder farmers.  
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Policy Advocacy and Research: Advocate for national climate change and agriculture policies to  
explicitly recognize mental health as a priority area. Future research should use longitudinal designs to  
better understand the long-term psychological impacts of climate variability.  
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