Parental involvement is widely acknowledged as a critical determinant of student academic success, yet its

impact varies across cultural and socio-economic contexts. This conceptual paper explores the relationship

between parental involvement and academic achievement within Malaysian primary education, drawing on

parental involvement through three dimensions; home-based activities, school-based participation, and parent-

outlining implications for future research and policy development aimed at fostering effective family-school

partnerships in diverse educational environments.

Malaysian primary education

Parental involvement is widely acknowledged as a cornerstone of student academic success [41][44][32].

home-based support, school communication, and participation in learning activities that students exhibit higher

motivation, improved behaviour, and better academic outcomes [21][50][32]. However, the degree and nature

of parental involvement differ significantly across cultural, socio-economic, and educational contexts

the academic achievement [38][51][33]. Existing studies often generalize findings from Western contexts, which

may not accurately reflect cultural and socio-economic variations in Malaysia [57][59][27]. Furthermore,

disparities in parental education levels and household income create unequal opportunities for engagement,

potentially influencing the effectiveness of involvement strategies [44][28][27]. Without localized research,

educators and policymakers lack clear guidance on which forms of parental involvement yield the greatest

benefits for student performance. This study addresses this gap by investigating the relationship between parental

involvement and academic achievement, while considering socio-economic and educational factors as

moderating variables.

learning at home, decision-making, and community collaboration [44][13]. These dimensions provide a

structured foundation for defining the independent variable in this study, that is parental involvement and guide

the identification of its sub-components (home-based involvement, school-based involvement, and

communication). The theory also implicitly supports the inclusion of moderating variables such as socio-

economic status and parental education level, as these contextual factors influence the degree and effectiveness

of parental engagement within the overlapping spheres [56][48].

of parental involvement (independent variable) affect academic achievement (dependent variable) and how

socio-economic and educational factors moderate this relationship. This alignment ensures that the study is

grounded in a well-established model that explains the dynamic interplay between family and school in

collaboration between the family and school spheres [31]. This theory suggests that when parents actively engage

in their child’s education through home-based learning support, school participation, and consistent

communication, the student’s academic performance improves [20][46]. Academic achievement is not only a

reflection of cognitive ability but also of environmental factors such as parental support and socio-economic

conditions [15][56][25]. Previous research confirms that students with higher levels of parental involvement

tend to perform better academically [6][1][26].

The primary independent variable in this study is Parental Involvement, conceptualized through three dimensions

derived from Epstein’s Framework of Parental Involvement. First and foremost, Home-Based Involvement

[38][21]. This refers to parental activities that occur within the home environment, such as assisting with

Communication. Effective communication between parents and teachers is essential for monitoring student

progress and addressing academic challenges [20][25][26]. Epstein’s model emphasizes communication as a

core mechanism for maintaining alignment between home and school expectations [17][54]. These dimensions

collectively operationalize parental involvement as a multifaceted construct that influences academic

achievement [34][51]. By examining these components, the study aims to identify which forms of involvement

exert the strongest impact on student performance within the Malaysian primary education context.

1) The relationship between parental involvement and academic achievement is influenced by contextual factors

that act as moderators. Two key moderating variables in this study are socio-economic status (SES) and parental

education level. SES affects the resources and opportunities available for parental engagement [11][48].

support, reducing the effectiveness of their engagement [48][40]. These moderators are critical for understanding

the variability in the parental involvement–academic achievement relationship and for designing interventions

that address equity in educational outcomes.

Fig. 1 Proposed Conceptual Framework

Parental involvement is widely recognized as a multidimensional construct that influences student academic

achievement [29][11]. Epstein’s Theory of Overlapping Spheres of Influence provides the theoretical foundation

H1: Home-based parental involvement is positively influenced the students’ academic achievement.

Home-based involvement includes activities such as assisting with homework, providing learning resources, and

creating a conducive learning environment [22][60][64]. Studies show that these practices reinforce classroom

learning and foster self-regulation skills [21][7]. In contexts where parents actively support learning at home,

students tend to exhibit higher motivation and better academic performance [44][7]. This hypothesis is grounded

in the assumption that consistent home-based engagement directly enhances cognitive development and

achievement.

H2: School-based parental involvement is positively influenced the students’ academic achievement.

School-based involvement refers to parents’ participation in school activities, volunteering, and engagement in

decision-making processes [34][36][25]. Such involvement strengthens the family-school partnership, enabling

better communication and alignment of educational goals [34][26]. Research suggests that when parents are

visible in school settings, students perceive education as a shared responsibility, which can improve attendance

and engagement [13][32]. However, the impact may vary depending on cultural norms and school policies,

H3: Parent-teacher communication is positively influenced the students’ academic achievement.

H4: Socio-economic status moderates the relationship between parental involvement and academic achievement.

SES influences the resources available for parental engagement, including time, educational materials, and

access to technology [11][10]. Families with higher SES can provide enriched learning environments, amplifying

the benefits of involvement [44][15]. Conversely, lower SES may limit these opportunities, reducing the

effectiveness of engagement strategies [16][27]. This moderating effect is supported by evidence that socio-

economic disparities contribute to achievement gaps [59][53][46].

H5: Parental education level moderates the relationship between parental involvement and academic

achievement.

Parents with higher education levels are better equipped to assist with academic tasks and communicate

effectively with teachers [58][26][5]. They often possess greater knowledge of curriculum expectations and

involvement and academic achievement, as well as the moderating effects of socio-economic status and parental

The target population comprises parents who have their children at secondary schools in Petaling Jaya, Selangor,

Malaysia. A stratified random sampling technique will be employed to ensure representation across different

socio-economic strata [59][45]. The sample size will be determined using G-power analysis to achieve adequate

statistical power for hypothesis testing [12][43].

development by highlighting strategies that promote equitable parental involvement, thereby reducing

From a theoretical standpoint, the research will validate Epstein’s Theory of Overlapping Spheres of Influence

This study addresses gaps in localized research by offering evidence to guide educational policy and practice.

The findings underscore the need for parental involvement strategies that reflect socio-economic and educational

differences among families. Parents with higher education levels generally provide more effective academic

support and communication with teachers, while those with limited education may face challenges that reduce

in the programs of development regional using SmartPLS. Journal of Project Management, 8(2), 119–

10. Bassignana, E., Cercas Curry, A., & Hovy, D. (2025). The AI Gap: How Socioeconomic Status Affects