INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025

The Effectiveness ofAsynchronous Mooc Learning for Vocabulary

AcquisitionAmong Chinese Undergraduates

Li Yanxi and Pavani Malaa Meganathan^*

Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang,

Selangor, Malaysia.

*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.91100149

Received: 10 November 2025; Accepted: 20 November 2025; Published: 03 December 2025

ABSTRACT

Asynchronous online learning has increasingly been recognized as a flexible and accessible approach for

enhancing language proficiency among ESL and EFL learners. Although the overall impact of asynchronous

learning on language acquisition has been extensively examined, investigations into its specific influence

particularly on vocabulary development remain comparatively limited. This study examines the effectiveness

of asynchronous online learning, via the Chinese University MOOC platform, in expanding English

vocabulary among Chinese undergraduate students. Employing a mixed-methods design, 30 non-English

majors completed a four-week online vocabulary course. Quantitative data were collected through pretests and

posttests using the Productive Vocabulary Levels Test (PVLT) to assess knowledge of word form, meaning,

and use. Semi-structured interviews investigated learners’ experiences, perceptions of the platform, and

challenges encountered, providing qualitative insights to complement the quantitative analysis. Results

indicated significant gains in learners’ productive vocabulary and the interview data revealed that students

valued the platform’s flexibility and reported increased motivation and autonomy in learning, yet also cited

limitations such as limited peer interaction and occasional technical issues. These results suggest that

asynchronous MOOC-based instruction can effectively enhance English vocabulary size. Implications of this

study highlight the potential of asynchronous platforms for vocabulary acquisition and highlight the need to

address these limitations in course design.

Keywords: Asynchronous Learning, Vocabulary Acquisition, MOOC platforms

INTRODUCTION

Vocabulary acquisition is the cornerstone of second language (L2) learning and plays a vital role in enabling

learners to improve their communicative competence and for overall development of the specific language

skills (i.e., listening, speaking, reading and writing). Without sufficient vocabulary, learners cannot express

their thoughts or understand the meaning of others (Schmitt, 2020; Meganathan et al., 2019). As Wilkins

(1972) said, ‘without grammar, people can't express much; without vocabulary, they can't express anything’

(p.80). This statement profoundly points out the centrality of vocabulary in language communication.

Therefore, for L2 learners, the limitation of vocabulary size and vocabulary depth can pose a big challenge the

process of language use (Nation, 2001; Huckin, 1995; Read, 2000).

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025

While vocabulary breadth usually refers to the total amount of words learners have mastered, vocabulary depth

involves the understanding of collocation, polysemy, grammatical function and contextual appropriateness

(Nation, 2001). If learners only accumulate vocabulary without understanding how it is used in real contexts, it

will be difficult for them to express themselves accurately in real communication. Only when both vocabulary

breadth and vocabulary depth are well developed can learners improve their fluency and use the L2 accurately

and appropriately in real communication (Webb, 2007). Furthermore, improved vocabulary competence can

also enhance learners' self-confidence, reduce language anxiety (Horwitz et al., 1986), and stimulate their

motivation for language learning (Meganathan et al., 2020). Therefore, vocabulary acquisition is one of the

central components of L2 acquisition in terms of communicative competence, language skill development, and

learning psychology.

Meanwhile in the Chinese educational context, English is not only a crucial subject in basic education but is

also widely recognised as a core competency contributing to individuals’ career advancement, national

modernisation, and international cooperation (Qi, 2016). Despite its importance, traditional vocabulary

instruction in China continues to be heavily influenced by exam-oriented pedagogies, relying on rote

memorisation, vocabulary list recitation, and translation-focused techniques (Yang & Dai, 2011). Although

these methods may support short-term retention of spelling and basic word meanings, they often fail to

promote deeper lexical competence, including collocational knowledge, contextual usage, and pragmatic

functions essential for authentic communication (Schmitt, 2008; Wang, 2023). Within this teacher-centered

instructional model, vocabulary learning becomes largely individual and passive students are expected to

memorise on their own after receiving limited explicit instruction on word form and meaning (Oxford &

Crookall, 1990; Yang & Dai, 2011). As a result, vocabulary learning is frequently undervalued in the broader

process of L2 acquisition, leading to gaps between receptive knowledge and productive use. Recognising these

limitations, studies (e.g., Ponniah, 2016; Meganathan et al., 2019, 2020, 2024; Schmitt, 2014) have

increasingly advocated for diversified and strategic vocabulary learning approaches that can better support

learners’ needs and promote more effective vocabulary development.

Alternative learning approaches that overcome the limitations of conventional instruction and provide greater

opportunities for learners to acquire the three core dimensions of vocabulary form, meaning, and use through

meaningful contexts and a balanced combination of intentional and incidental vocabulary learning

(Meganathan et al., 2019; Ponniah, 2016). Only when all three aspects are enhanced can learners confidently

use the learned vocabulary to communicate with others in real-life interactions, thereby achieving a

comprehensive improvement in language proficiency.

Accordingly, the emergence and widespread adoption of digital learning models in recent years have

introduced new avenues for improving L2 vocabulary acquisition beyond traditional classroom methods. For

instance, asynchronous learning platforms (e.g., Massive Open Online Courses, Duolinguo App, Bubei Words

App) provide a flexible and autonomous learning environment for vocabulary learning. This mode breaks the

constraints of time and space, provides learners with diverse learning resources, and at the same time enhances

the learning experience and outcomes through multimodal resources (e.g., video explanations, interactive

exercises, vocabulary quizzes, instant feedback, etc.) (Shandra & Chystiakova, 2021; Varkey, 2023; Vidhiasi,

2021; Hew & Cheung, 2014). In vocabulary learning, asynchronous platforms can help learners recognise

words, strengthen their memory, and deepen their understanding of vocabulary meaning and use through

multiple exposures and diverse resource designs (Perveen, 2016). Therefore, asynchronous learning platforms

such as MOOC are considered an innovative means to enhance the efficiency of L2 vocabulary acquisition and

have been widely used worldwide (Zhang & Tananuraksakul, 2023).

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oxford and Crookall (1990) classified vocabulary learning techniques into four main categories:

contextualization, semi-contextualization, full contextualization and adaptable strategies. Under these

strategies, there are 13 mainstream vocabulary learning strategies, including vocabulary lists, associative

memory, visual representations, structured review, etc., which provide references of great practical value for

both learners and educators. Meanwhile, Schmitt (2008) similarly encourages the use of diverse strategies in

vocabulary learning, arguing that implicit and explicit learning should be combined, and that meaning, form,

and fluency should be well integrated so that learners can be helped to construct learning frameworks

effectively in a systematic way.

Adequate vocabulary not only provides a basis for comprehension for language input (e.g., reading and

listening), but also provides expressive resources for language output (e.g., writing and speaking); Nation

(2006) found that the vocabulary required for comprehending an ordinary text should cover at least 95-98% of

the vocabulary of the text, or else learners' comprehension will be interrupted frequently due to the interference

of unfamiliar words. Vocabulary also plays a central role in writing and oral expression. An increase in

vocabulary enables learners to organise language more flexibly and accurately, express complex ideas, and

respond appropriately in different contexts. According to Nation (2006), for L2 learners, 2000-3000 words are

needed to achieve everyday communication, but 8000-9000 words are needed to accurately comprehend a

various text (e.g. novels, newspapers). These figures highlight the magnitude of the challenge faced by learners

in vocabulary acquisition and reinforce the importance of effective vocabulary learning strategies in L2

development.

When examining learners' vocabulary level, most studies usually determine the change in their vocabulary

level by measuring the change in their vocabulary size. Uchihara and Clenton (2020) found that learners with

more vocabulary are usually perceived to have higher vocabulary proficiency in oral expressions. Although

learners with more vocabulary did not use a lot of low-frequency vocabulary (i.e., what is perceived as

complex vocabulary) in their expressions, their overall fluency and accuracy were higher than those of others

in their oral expressions. This is also consistent with the view of Nation, proving that vocabulary is a vital

indicator of language ability.

At the same time, numerous studies have shown that vocabulary depth contributes independently and

significantly to language comprehension and expression (Alqallaf & Ahmed, 2022). First, vocabulary depth

enhances learners' precise grasp of word meanings and reduces the likelihood of ambiguity, thus improving

reading and listening accuracy (Stæhr, 2008). Second, rich vocabulary depth helps learners to use vocabulary

flexibly in writing, reading and speaking, increasing the variety and naturalness of language output (Laufer &

Waldman, 2011; Read & Dang, 2025). Li and Kirby (2015) found that vocabulary breadth is a stronger

predictor of identifying surface meanings of words in reading, while vocabulary depth helps learners predict

and understand deeper textual meanings for more abstract or generalized reading tasks. Vocabulary breadth

and vocabulary depth, as the two core dimensions of vocabulary knowledge, play complementary and critical

roles in L2 acquisition. Therefore, in vocabulary learning, learners should take both into account, laying a good

foundation and expanding the depth of vocabulary, so as to acquire vocabulary more firmly and

comprehensively (Yang & Dai, 2011; Read & Dang, 2025).

As a learning model that is not constrained by time or space, asynchronous learning has been widely adopted

by learners in recent years, particularly following the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. Due to the

inability of educational institutions to establish complex online teaching systems, asynchronous learning

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

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quickly gained popularity and widespread application due to its flexibility, and even became the primary mode

of teaching and learning under special circumstances (Daniel, 2020). Many researchers have found through

their studies (e.g., Yip & Kwan, 2006; Ajabshir & Sadeghi, 2019; Karaaslan, 2018; Choo & Ng, 2024) that

asynchronous learning can effectively help learners master more L2 vocabulary. This study argues that

assessing learners' vocabulary mastery should be approached from a deeper and more comprehensive

perspective. While this perspective can be assessed from multiple angles, existing research has primarily

focused on learners' basic mastery of vocabulary size. Many studies have directly compared changes in

learners' vocabulary size before and after intervention by setting up pre-tests and post-tests (e.g., Sudarmaji,

2022; Al-Jarf, 2005; Karaaslan, 2018), thereby intuitively demonstrating that the use of asynchronous learning

platforms can effectively enhance learners' vocabulary reserves.

What’s more, when exploring the role of asynchronous learning platforms in L2 vocabulary acquisition, many

studies (e.g., Karaaslan, 2018; Rigo & Mikuš, 2021; Zarei & Amani, 2018) have chosen to set up comparison

tests between a control group (traditional synchronous learning) and an experimental group (asynchronous

learning) to compare the effects of the two learning modes on vocabulary acquisition. Sudarmaji (2022)

employed this method to compare the effects of synchronous and asynchronous vocabulary learning on

English vocabulary acquisition among junior high school students. The results showed that the experimental

group's vocabulary scores were significantly higher than those of the control group after the intervention,

indicating that asynchronous mobile learning is superior to traditional teaching in enhancing vocabulary

mastery. Additionally, due to objective factors such as differences in learners' proficiency levels and platform

usage, as well as the higher demands of asynchronous learning on learners' self-management skills, another

study (Lotfi & Hosseini, 2019) found that learners who received synchronous instruction outperformed those

who received asynchronous instruction in vocabulary learning outcomes post-intervention.

While synchronous and asynchronous learning have distinct characteristics, it is undeniable that the features of

both learning methods can complement each other in enhancing learners' vocabulary mastery from different

perspectives. Synchronous learning offers real-time interaction and feedback, helping learners clarify doubts,

solve problems, promote understanding and engagement, and enhance collaborative and communication skills.

Asynchronous learning, on the other hand, offers more personalised learning options, allowing learners to

understand, practice, and review at their own pace (Hrastinski, 2008). Studies by Khodaparast and Ghafournia

(2015) as well as Koivuniemi (2012) revealed that if learners combine traditional synchronous instruction with

supplementary learning via asynchronous learning platforms, it can help students master vocabulary more

effectively. In addition to that Perveen (2016) also found through a survey of learners' subjective perceptions

that students tend to prefer a blended learning model combining synchronous and asynchronous learning,

supporting the view that combining both modes can better enhance English proficiency.

Despite the growing adoption of digital and asynchronous learning platforms for L2 vocabulary acquisition,

several gaps remain in the current literature. First, most studies have focused primarily on learners’ vocabulary

size, with limited attention to vocabulary depth, including collocation, polysemy, grammatical function, and

contextual usage (Alqallaf & Ahmed, 2022). Second, while asynchronous platforms such as MOOCs offer

flexible, autonomous, and multimodal learning opportunities, few studies (e.g., Zhang & Tananuraksakul,

2023) have examined their effectiveness for Chinese university students, who face unique educational and

linguistic challenges in English learning. Third, existing research often emphasizes overall vocabulary gains

(e.g., Meganathan 2024; Read & Dang, 2025; Derakhshan & Khatir, 2015), neglecting learners’ subjective

experiences, challenges, and strategies in navigating asynchronous learning environments. Finally, although

some studies have compared synchronous and asynchronous learning, there is a lack of comprehensive

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investigation into how asynchronous learning alone impacts both the breadth and depth of vocabulary

knowledge, and how learners perceive and internalize these gains.

Addressing these gaps is essential to provide a more holistic understanding of how asynchronous learning can

support effective L2 vocabulary acquisition in higher education contexts. The present study aims to investigate

the effectiveness of asynchronous vocabulary learning using a MOOC platform among Chinese university

students. Specifically, it seeks to (1) evaluate the impact of this learning model on learners’ vocabulary breadth

and depth, and (2) examine participants’ perceptions of asynchronous vocabulary learning and the challenges

they encounter while engaging with the platform. By addressing both quantitative outcomes and learners’

subjective experiences, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of how MOOC-based

asynchronous learning can support L2 vocabulary acquisition in higher education contexts.

METHODLOGY

Research Design

This study adopts a mixed-methods approach, which combines quantitative analysis and qualitative

exploration to systematically assess the role of asynchronous learning platforms (especially Chinese University

MOOC platform) in Chinese undergraduates' L2 vocabulary learning. The study was conducted in two phases

to ensure the systematic and comprehensive nature of the data. The first phase utilised an experimental pre-test

and post-test design, in which the researcher first administers a pre-test to the participants in order to assess

their existing vocabulary levels prior to vocabulary learning using the Chinese University MOOC platform. At

the end of the one-month online asynchronous learning, participants were given the posttest to assess the

changes in their vocabulary levels after the learning. A follow up interview was conducted to access the

participants vocabulary acquisition experiences during the asynchronous learning process.

Participants

The participants of the study consists of 30 undergraduate students from Chinese universities, aged between 20

and 23, who were non-English majors. To minimize the potential impact in English proficiency affecting the

study results, participants were required to have passed the College English Test Level 4 (CET-4) with a score

of at least 500. Since this study focused on online learning, a questionnaire was given to ensure that

participants have a high level of interest and motivation in learning English. All participants voluntarily agreed

to participate in this study. To protect their privacy, participants appearing in interviews will be identified by

pseudonyms.

Instruments

Pre-tests and post-tests were conducted using Nation’s Productive Vocabulary Levels Test (PVLT), a tool

designed to assess learners’ productive vocabulary knowledge in terms of form (spoken form, written form,

and word parts), meaning (core meaning, associations, and polysemy), and use (grammatical functions,

collocations, and contextual use). The PVLT primarily measures learners’ vocabulary use through gap-filling

and word stem completion tasks. Typically, the PVLT includes five vocabulary levels to evaluate learners’

vocabulary mastery; in this study, the 2,000–3,000-word level was selected to assess participants’ learning

outcomes. The study focused on the 2,000 and 3,000 PVLT word levels because the participants, who were

intermediate-level learners, were not expected to have attained higher-level vocabulary bands such as the 5,000

or 10,000 word levels, making these ranges more suitable for accurately capturing their productive vocabulary

knowledge.

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In addition, a semi-structured interview lasting approximately 15 minutes was conducted to gather learners’

feedback and perceptions of their learning experiences on the Chinese University MOOC platform. The

interviews focused on participants’ perceptions and the challenges they encountered during the vocabulary

learning process. All interviews were audio-recorded with participants’ consent and subsequently transcribed

for analysis.

Treatment

The treatment in this study involved an asynchronous vocabulary learning intervention conducted through the

China University MOOC platform. Participants completed a course titled “Vocabulary Memorization Skills for

the Core Examination Points of the University English Grade 6 Exam,” designed to enhance their vocabulary

knowledge. The course lasted approximately 10 hours and incorporated multimodal instructional resources,

including live courses, pre-recorded video lectures by senior teachers, vocabulary exercises, past examination

questions, and memory enhancement strategies.

These resources were accessible anytime and anywhere, allowing participants to study at their own pace,

thereby reflecting the flexibility and autonomy inherent in asynchronous learning. The live and recorded

lessons featured detailed vocabulary explanations and memorization techniques presented by an experienced

English tutor, Jia Kun, who holds a Master’s degree in TESOL from the University of Hong Kong and a Grade

8 Certificate in English. The course content emphasized a comprehensive understanding of vocabulary,

extending beyond word recognition and basic meaning to include collocations, grammatical functions, and

contextual usage.

As illustrated in Figures 1 and 2, the initial course interface displayed the types of materials available to

learners. Within the video lessons, learners could monitor their progress, adjust playback speed, and review

summaries of key strategies. The platform also included a discussion forum integrated with the live courses to

facilitate real-time interaction between learners and instructors. Participants were required to complete all

learning tasks within four weeks, dedicating approximately 2.5 hours per week to coursework. The platform

automatically recorded learning data such as video viewing duration and exercise completion to monitor

progress and ensure the reliability of the intervention.

Figure 1 Course Interface

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Figure 2 Video Course Interface

Data Collection Procedure

The first phase involved quantitative data collection. During the first week, all eligible participants completed a

pre-test to assess their initial vocabulary proficiency. The test was administered via the online meeting

platform Tencent Meeting. Participants were required to complete the test within a specified timeframe and

immediately submit screenshots of their results under camera supervision to ensure academic integrity.

Beginning in the second week, all participants enrolled in an online vocabulary course titled “Vocabulary

Memorization Techniques for the College English Test Band 6 Core Exam Points” on the China University

MOOC platform. Participants completed the course within four weeks, averaging at least 2.5 hours of video

lectures per week. Individual study schedules were determined by the participants according to their

availability. They were also required to review the accompanying learning materials. At the end of the four-

week course, all participants took a post-test of equivalent difficulty to the pre-test administered in the first

week to measure the effectiveness of asynchronous learning on vocabulary mastery.

The second phase involved qualitative data collection. After participants had completed both the learning tasks

and post-test in the sixth week, researchers employed stratified random sampling based on pre-test scores to

select six students two each from high, medium, and low proficiency groups for follow-up interviews. The

interviews were conducted in a semi-structured format, focusing on participants’ experiences with vocabulary

learning on the platform, their perceived learning outcomes, and the challenges they encountered. Each

interview lasted approximately 15 minutes and was audio-recorded with participants’ consent. The recordings

were transcribed verbatim to support subsequent thematic analysis.

Data Analysis

This study employs mixed methods approach to comprehensively analyse data, combining quantitative

statistical analysis with qualitative thematic analysis, to fully assess the actual impact of asynchronous learning

platforms on Chinese undergraduate students' English vocabulary acquisition and their learning experiences.

For the quantitative analysis, SPSS software was used to perform paired sample t-tests on the pre-test and post-

test scores of the PVLT to determine whether there was a statistically significant improvement in participants’

vocabulary proficiency following the asynchronous learning intervention. In addition, effect sizes were

calculated to assess the magnitude of the intervention effect and to evaluate whether the observed changes in

participants’ performance held practical educational significance.

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For the qualitative analysis, thematic analysis was conducted to organise and interpret the interview data. The

coding process was carried out manually by the researchers. First, each interview transcript was carefully read

and initially categorized to identify emerging themes. This was followed by several rounds of refinement and

synthesis to establish core thematic categories. The coding combined both theory-driven and data-driven

approaches. On the one hand, analytical dimensions were established based on Nation’s vocabulary knowledge

framework form, meaning, and use and principles of self-regulated learning theory. On the other hand, new

themes were inductively derived from participants’ statements, allowing for a richer understanding of their

learning behaviors, emotional responses, and strategy use within the asynchronous learning environment.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Quantitative Findings

Paired-sample t-tests and effect sizes were calculated using SPSS software to address the following research

question: Is there a significant difference between the participants’ pre-test and post-test Productive

Vocabulary Levels Test (PVLT) scores?

The results indicated that the mean score on the pre-test was 10.20, whereas the mean score on the post-test

increased to 11.07, yielding a mean difference of 0.87. This increase suggests that most participants’

vocabulary output ability improved following the four-week asynchronous learning intervention. Regarding

data distribution, the standard deviation of the pre-test was 1.32, while that of the post-test was 1.64, indicating

a slight increase in variability among participants’ post-test scores. Although individual differences in

performance were somewhat greater after the intervention, the overall variation remained within a manageable

range.

Table 1 Descriptive Statistics

Item

Sample Size

Mean

10.20

11.07

Standard Deviation Maximum Minimum

30

1.32

1.64

13

14

7

8

Pre-test

Post-test

To determine whether the observed improvement in vocabulary scores was statistically significant, a paired

samples t-test was conducted, and the results are presented in Table 2. The mean difference between post-test

and pre-test scores was -0.87 (indicating that post-test scores were higher than pre-test scores), with a t-value

of -3.112 and a two-tailed p-value of 0.004. Because the p-value is below the conventional threshold of 0.01,

the difference is considered statistically significant at the 1% level. These results support the hypothesis that

asynchronous learning via MOOC platforms can produce meaningful gains in students’ vocabulary proficiency

over a relatively short instructional period. The findings indicate that the improvement in participants’

vocabulary scores was unlikely due to chance, suggesting that the asynchronous learning intervention had a

positive effect on vocabulary acquisition.

Table 2 Paired Samples T-test

Item

Mean

10.20

11.07

Standard Deviation Mean Difference

t

p

1.32

-0.87

1.64

Pre- test

Post- test

-3.112

0.004**

*p<0.05**p<0.01

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To evaluate the practical significance of the learning effect, Cohen’s d was calculated. The resulting value of

0.568 corresponds to a medium effect size according to Cohen’s (1988) guidelines (0.2 = small, 0.5 = medium,

0.8 = large). This indicates that the asynchronous learning intervention not only produced a statistically

significant improvement but also had a meaningful educational impact. The medium effect size suggests that

asynchronous learning can serve as an effective pedagogical approach for enhancing vocabulary acquisition.

Furthermore, the 95% confidence interval for the mean difference ranged from -1.436 to -0.297, which does

not include zero, providing additional evidence of the robustness of the observed effect.

Table 3 Effect Size Analysis

Standard

Deviation

the Difference

Comparison

Groups

Mean

Difference

Confidence

Interval(95%CI)

df

of Cohen's d

Pre- test vs Post-

test

-0.87

-1.436~-0.297

29

1.525

0.568

Qualitative Findings

The qualitative analysis of the study revealed four main themes. These themes are examined in turn, with

learners’ perspectives and emotions illustrated through representative quotations. The data provides a deeper

understanding of the underlying mechanisms of asynchronous vocabulary learning and enriches the

interpretation of participants’ experiences on the MOOC platform.

Positive Feedback on Asynchronous Learning

The data indicated that interviewees reported varying degrees of positive experiences regarding vocabulary

expansion, firmness of memorisation, and flexibility in vocabulary use. This finding is consistent with

previous research on asynchronous language learning platforms (e.g., Karaaslan et al., 2018; Choo & Ng,

2024) which highlights how the flexible and multifaceted features of such platforms facilitate vocabulary

acquisition and consolidation from multiple perspectives.

“In live classes, teachers use Chinese words or pictures with similar pronunciations to explain vocabulary,

which helps me remember words more deeply. For example, when the teacher explained the word

“ambulance,” because its Chinese pronunciation is similar to “I can't die,” I can associate its meaning with the

word as soon as I see it.”(Jasmine)

“The teacher was very detailed in explaining each word during the lecture and would compose jingles for us to

remember the words, for example, when memorizing the word 'balloon', she associated the ball with the moon

and said that the ball can only fly to the moon when it becomes a balloon. That made me remember it well.”

(Alice)

These descriptions illustrate that, during asynchronous learning, participants developed a deeper understanding

of the meaning of vocabulary. In traditional classroom settings, teachers often have limited time to help

students memorize words. In contrast, asynchronous platforms provide targeted courses without the constraints

of a fixed teaching schedule, allowing instructors to employ creative strategies that enhance vocabulary

retention. The use of native-language associations to support lexical understanding aligns with

the Association dimension in Nation’s (2001) vocabulary framework. This strategy not only deepens learners’

comprehension of word meanings but also facilitates recall and contextual application (Aitchison, 2012).

Through frequent exposure to contextual cues and diverse interpretive methods, learners gradually construct a

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semantic network linking vocabulary to specific contexts, thereby achieving deeper mastery of word meanings

and promoting transfer to practical usage (Meganathan, 2019).

“The teacher categorizes and explains words with fixed affixes or roots, which helps me form a general

impression of them. Then, when I encounter specific vocabulary, I can judge the emotional connotation of their

meanings. For example, words beginning with “mal” have negative connotations, so when I see the word

“malicious,” I can immediately associate it with a negative meaning.” (Mike)

“I kept spelling 'embarrassment' wrong, always forgetting whether it was two r's or two s's. Then my teacher

said something funny, 'A person who is mocked has to endure double the shame, so there are two r's and two

s's.' This stuck in my mind right away. I memorized that one and never misspelled it again.”

Regarding the form dimension of vocabulary, interviewees’ feedback emphasized both spelling memorization

and morphological understanding. Instruction on word formation enabled learners to grasp the logic underlying

new words and develop the ability to analyze and infer the meanings of unfamiliar words. This reasoning-

based strategy helps learners comprehend new vocabulary more effectively and prevents reliance on rote

memorization. As Hamzah et al. (2009) noted, knowledge of word structure is a crucial aid for vocabulary

learning, enhancing both efficiency and retention. By recognizing roots and affixes, participants were able to

infer the general meaning of words, facilitating quicker contextual comprehension in exams (McBride-Chang

et al., 2008). In terms of spelling memorization, respondents reported that mnemonic explanations and

associations provided on the platform were highly effective for mastering frequently misspelled words. Ben’s

example illustrates a localized spelling strategy that integrates Chinese linguistic habits and emotional cues,

which improves both spelling accuracy and memory durability (Ghazal, 2007).

“I used to only use some more basic collocations when I wrote essays, and these collocations sometimes didn't

fully express my meaning, but after the teacher explained and summarized richer collocations I feel I can

express more accurately.” (Alice)

“I used to write 'I think' and 'a lot of' in my essays, but the teacher said they were too colloquial and should be

replaced by 'in my opinion/view' or 'a large number of', then I noticed that academic writing should use more

formal words.” (Emily)

Interviewees indicated that through the numerous examples sentences and summarized collocations presented

in MOOC courses, they not only “recognize the word” but also “know how to use it.” In traditional

classrooms, due to time constraints, learners' mastery of vocabulary collocations is relatively limited.

Therefore, when they need to use collocations, they often rely on their native language as a reference and

directly translate and construct collocations based on the combinations of native language words (Ellis, 1997).

This approach often neglects the collocation patterns of verbs and nouns, as well as adjectives and nouns in

English, causing learners to make a large number of collocation errors.

On the other hand, MOOC courses present learners with a large number of high-frequency collocations

through contextual displays, phrase cards, and contextualized multiple-choice questions, helping them

accumulate more vocabulary collocations. This also transforms vocabulary from isolated use to integrated

output, significantly enhancing the accuracy and authenticity of expression. Additionally, they gain a deeper

understanding of the functional, tonal, and appropriateness aspects of vocabulary in specific contexts. As

Nation (2001) argues, true mastery of a word involves not only understanding its meaning and form but also

grasping its usage patterns and stylistic features across different contexts, and this “deep vocabulary

knowledge” is crucial for advanced expression. Many students often encounter issues such as “inappropriate

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vocabulary use” and “style mismatch” in writing or speaking, which stem from a lack of stylistic awareness

(Biber & Conrad, 2009). However, MOOC courses enable learners to select vocabulary more accurately in

different communicative tasks through extensive contextualized presentation and targeted categorization.

Feedback from interviews indicates that teachers employed strategies such as native language coordination,

association methods, and rich contextual input in asynchronous learning sessions, which significantly

enhanced learners' deep understanding and retention of vocabulary meanings. Such designs inherently

represent intentional learning strategies, where learners are explicitly aware that they are engaged in

vocabulary learning, with the goal of memorizing and mastering the vocabulary in the course. Additionally,

due to the flexible viewing mechanisms of asynchronous courses, learners continuously receive extensive

contextual input through repeated exposure to video content and example sentence explanations. This process

inevitably involves some incidental learning, which also positively promotes vocabulary retention

(Meganathan 2019; 2020).

Positive Role of Platform Design

The respondents generally agreed that some of the features of the platform were designed to enhance the

efficiency and depth of vocabulary learning to a great extent.

“In the usual classroom the teacher sometimes speaks faster, and the teacher starts to speak the next word

before I can hear it clearly. But on the MOOC platform I can pause or go back to a point at any time.” (Ben)

Compared to traditional teaching models, asynchronous learning platforms enable learners to adjust their

learning pace flexibly based on their language proficiency and schedule. For an example, learners can control

video playback speed, choose the order of learning content, and watched instructional materials. This self-

regulated learning mechanism, which allows learners to adjust their pace and input methods, reflects the

asynchronous platform's respect for individual differences while also effectively enhancing students' sense of

engagement and control during learning. According to Little (1991)’s self-regulated learning theory, autonomy

is an important psychological mechanism influencing language learners’ long-term motivation and learning

outcomes.

Additionally, MOOC platforms widely employ multimodal methods to present vocabulary content, including

live streams, videos, audio, images, and written materials. This not only provides learners with

multidimensional, immersive language input but also significantly enhances the intuitiveness and efficiency of

vocabulary learning.

“When the teacher talks about the difference between 'implement a policy' and 'execute a plan', she has two

sets of images of the meeting and the execution of the operation. 'execute' puts more emphasis on 'action' and

'implement' is more policy or strategy oriented.” (Jasmine)

“The platform will prompt me that the word 'symptom' has been wrong twice, and will also recommend that I

add it to my vocabulary error book to review it repeatedly, so that I can strengthen my memory of the word.”

(Mike)

These excerpts suggest that while purely linguistic explanations can help learners initially grasp the semantic

differences between synonyms, memory of such vocabulary often fades without multidimensional

reinforcement. On MOOC platforms, instructors use images and typical collocations to aid memory, which can

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to some extent deepen learners' recall. In addition to graphic support, MOOC platforms incorporate a wealth of

authentic language materials, such as reading questions, audio clips, and dialogue simulations, providing

contextualized input that overcomes the limitations of traditional textbooks teaching “isolated examples”

(Gilmore, 2007).

Perceived Benefits and Perceptions of MOOC Functions

During the interviews, most participants expressed positive and affirming attitudes toward the asynchronous

learning model, noting that MOOC-based instruction provided substantial flexibility, autonomy, and

sustainability for vocabulary learning.

“Usually busy during the day when there are classes, can only go back to the dormitory in the evening to learn,

usually live classes are arranged in the evening, so that the staggered. If I don't want to learn today or

something happens I can also watch the replay the next day.”(Alice)

“Although there are times when the teacher speaks a bit fast, I can set the video to 0.75x speed or I can watch it

more than once so that I have enough time to take notes.” (Emily)

These excerpts suggest that participants valued the temporal flexibility offered by the MOOC platform, which

allowed them to engage in learning at a pace aligned with their individual schedules. The functional design of

the MOOC platform enables learners to adjust to their own pace of life and language base, which enhances the

sense of control in the learning process, and thus promotes the activation and retention of motivation and

improves the Learning efficiency. In addition, respondents generally believe that vocabulary learning itself has

a strong “repetitive” and “rhythmic variability”, and asynchronous learning can effectively adapt to the

individual needs of different learners in terms of memorization cycle, review frequency and learning rhythm.

As seen in the experts below, the most participants noted that they are willing to continue to use asynchronous

learning platforms for learning when necessary. This suggests that, due to the lower cost and increased

efficiency associated with asynchronous online learning, a considerable number of learners prefer such

platforms as a more practical option for improving their proficiency and preparing for examinations, compared

to more costly traditional face-to-face training courses.

“I've now gotten used to memorizing a little bit of words every day using the platform, which has that punch

card and wrong word reminder function. I think it's a lot more effective than the kind of mechanical brushing

of word books I used to do, and when I have spare time even for ten minutes I can review it.” (Ben)

“I used this kind of platform (Chalk Education) before when I took the teacher's license exam, I followed the

teacher for several months, and finally I passed the exam, so I think this kind of learning mode is effective for

me, and I'm willing to use the MOOC platform when I study for the sixth grade.” (Emily)

The interview findings indicate that learners’ willingness to continue using the platform is influenced not only

by its usability and content, but also by the stable learning habits they have developed over extended use. Over

time, learners internalize knowledge of the platform’s functions, allowing these features to become an integral

part of their learning behavior. In this sense, the asynchronous learning platform transitions from being merely

an external tool to serving as a structural support system within their overall learning process. Moreover,

participants’ willingness to engage with the platform is driven not only by present positive experiences but also

by positive perceptions shaped through previous successful learning outcomes. Consequently, the platform has

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been incorporated into their cognitive schema as an “effective learning tool”, leading to transfer effects and

strategic generalization. From a cognitive psychology perspective, this phenomenon can be interpreted as

cognitive model transfer, in which learners associate learning strategies with successful outcomes based on

past experience and attempt to replicate or extend these strategies to new learning tasks (Gick & Holyoak,

1980).

Negative Feedback of Asynchronous Learning

Although most respondents acknowledged the flexibility and extensive resources provided by MOOC

platforms for vocabulary learning, they also highlighted several difficulties and challenges faced during actual

use. The primary issue reported by the participants was the limited interaction and insufficient feedback

offered by the platform.

“Sometimes I see example sentences that I don't quite understand and want to ask about them, but the teacher

can't see the messages either, and there is no one who can answer my doubts, unlike in the classroom where I

can ask questions on the spot.” (Alice)

“After learning the usage of some vocabulary words, I want to ask the teacher or classmates whether such

collocations are appropriate, but no one usually replies to me in the comment section.” (Mike)

Several interviewees mentioned that one of the major challenges in vocabulary learning through MOOC

platforms is the “lack of verification or guidance on language usage,” referring to the limited interaction and

practical feedback available. Although MOOC platforms offer a wide range of well-structured vocabulary

explanations and exercises, learners often lack timely, practical feedback on their word usage. This gap not

only disrupts learning continuity but also hinders the immediate resolution of language-related difficulties. In

addition, the asynchronous nature of these platforms reduces real-time communication opportunities with

teachers and peers, limiting learners’ chances to practice meaningful language production and receive targeted

corrective guidance.

As Swain (2005) emphasized, effective language learning requires not only comprehensible input but also

productive output that stimulates deeper processing and enhances retention. In other words, vocabulary can

only be fully acquired through repeated attempts and corrective feedback in authentic usage (Nation, 2001).

Therefore, although MOOC platforms are highly effective in facilitating vocabulary input, they remain

insufficient in supporting output-based learning processes and interactive language development at the

pragmatic level. Moreover, while the “high flexibility” of asynchronous learning serves as a major advantage,

it simultaneously places greater demands on learners’ self-regulation skills. Many participants reported

difficulties in maintaining consistent learning behavior and a stable study schedule due to the absence of

external supervision and fixed timelines.

“Although I know that this course can help me master more vocabulary of CET-6, because it's still a long time

before the exam and the content of this course is not too much, so my study is intermittent, and there are times

when the interval is a little bit longer I forget a little bit about what I've learned before.” (Doris)

“I had planned to watch half an hour to an hour of the course every day, but sometimes I got busy during the

day and missed it and procrastinated, then I didn't open the platform for a couple of days, and I didn't catch up

on the content until close to the time of the course deadline.” (Jasmine)

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Since asynchronous learning is a learning model that allows learners to freely arrange their own schedules,

feedback from interviewees indicates that learning behavior is prone to interruption when there is a lack of

self-planning or external reminders. This is particularly true when tasks are heavy or course intensity is high,

as students are more likely to procrastinate and experience reduced learning efficiency. For students who have

not yet developed mature learning strategies, this high degree of freedom may actually become an obstacle to

completing tasks. However, self-regulation requires long-term persistence, which demands that learners

possess a high level of self-control. Many learners are easily distracted by environmental factors, emotions, or

external temptations. Therefore, the lack of effective reminders and supervision on asynchronous platforms

also exacerbates procrastination and interruptions to some extent.

CONCLUSION

This study investigated the impact of asynchronous vocabulary learning on the English vocabulary proficiency

of Chinese university students. Through a combination of quantitative test data and qualitative interview

analysis, the findings indicate that asynchronous learning has a positive effect on L2 vocabulary acquisition.

The results demonstrated an overall improvement in learners’ vocabulary output ability following the

intervention. Statistical analysis showed that post-test accuracy increased significantly after four weeks of

asynchronous learning, with a moderate effect size. Interview feedback further supported these findings, with

students reporting that the flexibility and diverse learning resources offered by the asynchronous platform

facilitated vocabulary retention and engagement.

This study provides meaningful evidence that asynchronous learning via MOOC platforms can positively

influence L2 vocabulary acquisition among Chinese university students. Its significance lies in demonstrating

that digital, self-directed learning environments are not only capable of supporting vocabulary breadth but also

contribute to learners’ productive use of vocabulary, complementing traditional classroom instruction. The

findings highlight that flexibility, multimodal resources, and repeated exposure to key features of

asynchronous platforms indeed can enhance learners’ engagement, motivation, and retention of vocabulary,

offering practical strategies for higher education contexts where large class sizes and limited instructional time

often constrain individualized learning. Furthermore, the study broadens current understanding by showing

how self-paced digital tasks can create individualised learning pathways, enabling learners to revisit, rehearse,

and personalize vocabulary learning in ways that may not be feasible in face-to-face instruction.

From a pedagogical perspective, the study implies that integrating asynchronous learning into L2 curricula can

provide students with opportunities to reinforce and expand vocabulary outside of formal classroom settings,

promoting more autonomous and self-regulated learning. For educators, the results suggest the value of

designing digital tasks that balance vocabulary input, meaningful practice, and opportunities for learner

reflection to maximize both comprehension and productive use. In particular, embedding interactive elements

such as formative quizzes, automated feedback, and multimodal vocabulary presentation may further enhance

the effectiveness of asynchronous learning environments.

While the study provides valuable empirical evidence of the effectiveness of asynchronous learning for

English vocabulary development among Chinese undergraduates, several factors should be considered in

interpreting the results. First, the sample size was relatively small, which may limit generalizability.

Nonetheless, the observed improvements provide meaningful insights into how asynchronous learning can

support L2 vocabulary acquisition. Future research might also consider including delayed post-tests (e.g., 1–3

months after the intervention) to assess retention and application over time. Additionally, future studies should

explore a more diverse range of participants across different proficiency levels to determine whether

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asynchronous learning benefits lower-proficiency learners equally. Incorporating comparison groups such as

synchronous, face-to-face, or blended learning conditions would also help establish clearer causal relationships

between learning mode and vocabulary development.

The study underscores the potential of blended approaches that combine asynchronous and synchronous

elements, allowing learners to benefit from both flexible (Cahyani et al., 2021), self-paced study and

interactive feedback from instructors and peers. Finally, this study contributes to the growing body of research

on digital L2 learning in China, addressing a gap in understanding how asynchronous platforms support

vocabulary acquisition in higher education. The results can guide curriculum developers, instructional

designers, and policymakers in implementing effective technology-enhanced learning strategies, ultimately

fostering more effective, engaging, and learner-centered English instruction.

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