INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025

Public Primary School Teacher Preparedness on CBC Adoption in

Township Ward, Garissa County, Kenya

John Momanyi Ongubo (PhD)

Senior Lecturer, Postgraduate and Research, Mogadishu University – Somalia

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.91100015

Received: 10 November 2025; Accepted: 20 November 2025; Published: 27 November 2025

ABSTRACT

Globally, education systems underwent a transition from traditional, examination-centred approaches to learner-

centred, competency-based models designed to equip learners with twenty-first-century skills. In Kenya, the

Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC), launched in 2017, sought to reorient basic education toward holistic and

skills-based learning. However, disparities in its implementation became evident, particularly in marginalized

regions of the country. This study assessed public primary teacher preparedness for CBC adoption in Township

Ward, Garissa County and focused on pedagogical competence, in-service training coverage, and access to

curriculum support resources. The study was guided by Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) Theory, the

Resource-Based View (RBV), and Systems Theory. It applied a desktop review methodology to synthesize data

from peer-reviewed literature, government publications, and county-level reports. The findings revealed that

public primary teachers in Garissa Township Ward faced significant challenges, including insufficient CBC-

focused training, limited access to instructional materials, and inadequate infrastructure conditions that impede

effective implementation of learner-centred teaching strategies. In response, the study proposed an integrated

implementation framework grounded in Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological

Systems Theory, Epstein’s Model of Overlapping Spheres, and the Stakeholder Theory. The study contributed

to the existing body of knowledge by generating localized evidence and proposing a practical, theory-driven

model to support CBC implementation in underserved regions. Based on the integrated implementation

framework, the study recommended institutionalizing school-based and modular teacher professional

development programs, aligning teacher training with pedagogical practice, establishing CBC-specific financing

models, investing in learning infrastructure in marginalized areas, creating decentralized Curriculum Support

Centers (CSCs), and implementing multi-stakeholder policy review mechanisms.

Key Words: Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC), Teacher Preparedness, Pedagogical Content Knowledge,

In-Service Training, Educational Infrastructure, Marginalized Regions

INTRODUCTION

Globally, education systems are undergoing transformative reforms to shift from traditional, exam‐centered

instruction toward learner‐centered, competency‐driven approaches that prepare students for twenty‐first‐

century challenges (Darling‐Hammond et al., 2020). Nations such as Finland, Singapore, and South Korea have

demonstrated that effective Competency‐Based Education (CBE) hinges on robust teacher capacity

development, curriculum‐aligned resources, and supportive infrastructure (Sahlberg, 2021) These international

successes underscore the critical role of teacher preparedness in translating CBE philosophies into classroom

practice (OECD, 2020)

According to UNESCO, (2021) countries in sub‐Saharan Africa, including Rwanda, Nigeria, and South Africa

have introduced CBE models to address skills gaps and improve workforce readiness. However, many of these

initiatives struggle with persistent constraints most notably insufficient professional development for teachers,

limited access to instructional materials, and inadequate learning environments particularly in marginalized or

resource‐poor regions (Chikoko & Gilmour, 2022). In Kenya, the Competency‐Based Curriculum (CBC) was

launched in 2017 under the Basic Education Curriculum Framework (BECF) to foster holistic, skills‐based

learning across all levels of basic education (KICD, 2018; MoE, 2019). As a departure from rote‐learning

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025

traditions, CBC requires teachers to adopt learner‐centered pedagogies, continuous assessment techniques, and

project‐based activities demands that place considerable pressure on educators to rapidly develop new

competencies (NESP, 2022; KNEC, 2021).

Despite nationwide rollout efforts, disparities in CBC implementation have emerged, with rural and arid regions

reporting the greatest challenges in teacher training, instructional support, and classroom readiness (Otieno et

al., 2023; Oduor & Kimutai, 2022). Garissa County an arid and semi‐arid region in northeastern Kenya faces

chronic educational marginalization due to insecurity, understaffing, limited professional development

opportunities, and weak infrastructure (MOE, 2021; KNBS, 2023). In Township Ward, public primary schools

are expected to deliver CBC’s learner‐centered approaches despite lacking comprehensive in‐service training,

curriculum support materials, and conducive learning spaces.

Given these contextual realities, there is a pressing need for localized evidence on teacher preparedness for CBC

adoption in Township Ward, Garissa County. This study therefore seeks to assess public primary school

teachers’ pedagogical readiness, training adequacy, and resource access in implementing CBC. The findings will

inform targeted professional development and policy interventions to support equitable and effective curriculum

reform in marginalized regions of Kenya (Yusuf & Wario, 2023; UNICEF Kenya, 2022; KESSP, 2023).

Study Rationale

The successful adoption of Kenya’s Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) hinges significantly on teacher

preparedness, including mastery of new pedagogical approaches, assessment techniques, and learner-centered

strategies. However, evidence indicates that teacher readiness remains critically low, particularly in marginalized

regions. According to a national assessment by the Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD, 2021),

only 43% of primary school teachers reported feeling adequately trained to implement CBC effectively, while

58% cited difficulties in understanding competency-based assessment tools. These gaps are more pronounced in

arid and semi-arid areas like Garissa County, where systemic challenges including insecurity, teacher shortages,

and limited infrastructure continue to undermine education delivery (MoE, 2021; KNBS, 2023).

In Township Ward, Garissa County, preliminary reports by the County Directorate of Education (2022) revealed

that more than 60% of public primary teachers had not received comprehensive in-service training on CBC, and

over 70% lacked access to updated curriculum support materials. Furthermore, teacher–learner ratios in some

schools exceed 1:65, far above the national standard of 1:40 (TSC, 2023). These disparities raise critical concerns

about the capacity of teachers in the ward to meet CBC’s pedagogical demands, particularly in facilitating

differentiated learning, formative assessment, and learner-centered instruction. Despite national reforms, there

is limited empirical research focusing specifically on the extent of teacher preparedness in Garissa’s Township

Ward. This study, therefore, seeks to bridge that gap by evaluating the level of CBC-related pedagogical

competence, training coverage, and resource availability among public primary school teachers. The findings

aim to inform localized interventions and equitable resource distribution in support of CBC implementation.

Research Objective

The study aimed to examine the level of Public Primary Teacher Preparedness on CBC Adoption in Township

Ward, Garissa County, Kenya

Significance of the Assessment

This assessment is significant as it provides critical insights into the level of public primary teacher preparedness

for the adoption of the Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) in Township Ward, Garissa County an area that

faces unique educational challenges such as insecurity, teacher shortages, and infrastructural deficits. By

focusing on a marginalized region often excluded from national averages, the study generates localized evidence

that can inform context-specific interventions by the Ministry of Education, the Teachers Service Commission,

and curriculum development agencies. The findings are expected to guide targeted teacher training, resource

allocation, and policy formulation to ensure equitable and effective CBC implementation. Ultimately, this study

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025

contributes to bridging the gap between national curriculum reforms and grassroots educational realities,

promoting inclusive, quality, and competency-driven education for all learners regardless of geography.

Theoretical Review

Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) Theory

The Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) Theory was developed by Lee Shulman in 1986. The theory posits

that effective teaching is achieved not only through mastery of subject content but also through the ability to

deliver that content in a way that is understandable and meaningful to learners. Its main tenets are that good

teaching requires the integration of content knowledge, pedagogical skill, and an understanding of learners’ prior

knowledge and misconceptions. However, Grossman (1990) criticized PCK for lacking clarity in distinguishing

between general pedagogical knowledge and subject-specific pedagogy, arguing that the theory remains difficult

to operationalize in teacher training. Despite this, Gudmundsdottir (1991) supported the theory, stating it

provides a powerful framework for assessing teaching quality and guiding professional development.

In the context of this study, PCK was found useful in assessing the adequacy of teacher competency in the rollout

of the Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) in CBC Adoption in Township Ward, Garissa Count. The CBC

demands that teachers go beyond content delivery and instead facilitate learner-centered, inquiry-based learning

processes, which aligns directly with the core of PCK. While its abstract nature may pose challenges in precise

measurement, the theory allows evaluators to examine how well teachers translate curriculum objectives into

meaningful learning experiences. By focusing on how pedagogical knowledge and subject matter knowledge are

blended, PCK provides insight into whether teachers are truly prepared for CBC instruction.

Resource-Based View (RBV)

The Resource-Based View (RBV) Theory was developed by Jay Barney in 1991, grounded in the strategic

management field. The theory posits that an institution's ability to perform and gain a competitive advantage lies

in its access to valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable (VRIN) resources. These resources include

tangible assets like finances, infrastructure, and human capital, which enable organizations to implement and

sustain key programs. RBV emphasizes internal resource availability over external market factors when

determining success. However, Peteraf (1993) critiqued the theory for its lack of clarity in measuring and

categorizing what constitutes a “valuable” resource, arguing that it oversimplifies dynamic institutional realities.

Despite its critiques, RBV remains a relevant and widely supported theoretical model. Wernerfelt (1984), one of

the early proponents of the resource-based approach, emphasized that organizations must align their strategic

goals with the resource capabilities they possess. In the context of Township Ward, Garissa County, CBC

implementation depends heavily on financial input for teacher training, curriculum materials, and school

infrastructure making financial adequacy a strategic resource under RBV. While the theory may not fully account

for external factors like political will or donor dependency, it offers a useful lens to assess how internal financial

resources impact the effectiveness of CBC rollout.

Systems Theory

Systems Theory, developed by Ludwig von Bertalanffy in the 1950s, conceptualizes organizations as holistic

entities comprised of interrelated and interdependent components working together to achieve common goals

(von Bertalanffy, 1968). The theory emphasizes key elements such as inputs, processes, outputs, feedback

mechanisms, and environmental interactions. In educational institutions, this translates to a functional

relationship among infrastructure, human resources, curriculum delivery, and administration. For public primary

schools, these subsystems must be adequately prepared to support Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC)

implementation. A breakdown in any one subsystem like ICT infrastructure or physical facilities can disrupt the

effectiveness of the whole educational system.

A more recent critique by Mingers and White (2020) argues that traditional Systems Theory tends to

oversimplify social complexities and underrepresents contextual and cultural variables in dynamic environments

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like education. Despite this, proponents such as Senge (2006) advocate its use in assessing institutional

effectiveness and promoting continuous learning and adaptation. In the case of Garissa County, Systems Theory

provided a useful lens to evaluate infrastructural readiness by examining how various physical facilities interact

to support or hinder CBC adoption. While the theory may not fully capture socio-political dynamics, it offers a

coherent and logical framework for identifying functional gaps and aligning resource planning in public primary

schools

EMPIRICAL LITERATURE REVIEW

A study by Wambua and Mwangi (2022) assessed teacher preparedness for CBC implementation in public

primary schools in Machakos County. Using a descriptive survey design with a sample of 120 teachers, the study

found that although most teachers had undergone CBC training workshops organized by the Ministry of

Education, only 38% felt adequately prepared to deliver the new curriculum. The study revealed key gaps in

pedagogical content knowledge, assessment design, and integration of ICT in learning. It also noted that the

rapid curriculum transition placed pressure on teachers who lacked continuous support mechanisms. The study

concluded that teacher competency significantly influences the success of CBC implementation, especially in

Grades 6 to 8 where learning tasks are more advanced. A major contextual gap identified was the insufficient

post-training support, suggesting the need for sustained professional development programs aligned with CBC

requirements.

Conducting research in Kajiado County, Kimeu and Muthoni surveyed 104 teachers and 12 school

administrators. The study found that while most teachers had received initial CBC training, only 29% had

mastered the use of formative assessment tools and learner-centered instructional techniques. The study also

revealed a lack of mastery in performance-based evaluation, which is central to CBC. A conceptual gap was

noted in the alignment between teacher training content and classroom realities, recommending the need for

curriculum-specific pedagogical content enhancement.

Chege and Njuguna (2023) conducted a financial audit of CBC implementation in selected public schools across

Kiambu and Murang’a counties. Their mixed-method study involved 45 school heads and 8 County Education

Officers. Findings indicated that over 70% of the schools lacked adequate financial resources to support CBC

activities such as project-based learning, acquisition of digital devices, and teacher capacity-building programs.

The government’s capitation was deemed insufficient and irregular, leading to delays in procurement of CBC

learning materials. The study emphasized that financial inadequacy undermines curriculum equity, especially in

rural schools where parents cannot fill resource gaps. The methodological gap noted was that many budgetary

allocations failed to account for CBC-specific requirements, calling for a review of the funding model to reflect

competency-based needs rather than legacy structures.

In their study of CBC financing in rural schools in Kisumu and Homa Bay counties, Ochieng and Mutinda

discovered that over 65% of schools lacked adequate CBC learning materials due to budgetary shortfalls.

Interviews with school heads revealed dependence on parents for project funding, exacerbating inequalities

among learners. The contextual gap here was the mismatch between government funding frameworks and CBC

demands, highlighting the need for a revised CBC-specific funding policy that addresses practical and resource-

based learning requirements.

A recent study by Koech, Odhiambo, and Wanjiku (2024) investigated the infrastructural preparedness of public

primary schools for the CBC rollout in Nakuru and Bomet counties. Using observational checklists and

interviews with 50 school heads, the study reported that less than 40% of schools had adequate classroom space,

science laboratories, or ICT infrastructure necessary for competency-based instruction. Many schools operated

in temporary structures or shared facilities with primary sections. Furthermore, it was found that the

infrastructural inadequacies disproportionately affected learners in marginalized and arid regions, compromising

the uniformity of CBC implementation. The conceptual gap identified relates to the mismatch between

curriculum expectations and physical learning environments, necessitating urgent investment in infrastructure

as a key enabler of CBC success.

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Investigating infrastructure in Kwale and Kilifi counties Mwakio and Cherono (2023), in their study revealed

that only 33% of sampled schools had functional science laboratories and less than 25% had access to digital

learning tools. Many schools lacked electricity or internet access. A methodological gap was identified in how

infrastructure assessments are conducted, as government reports often overestimate readiness by counting

structures that are incomplete or shared across multiple school levels. The study recommended targeted

infrastructure mapping to accurately inform resource allocation.

METHODOLOGICAL DESIGN

This study employed a desktop review research design to systematically evaluate the preparedness of public

primary school teachers for CBC adoption in Township Ward, Garissa County. A desktop review is particularly

suited to exploratory inquiries where existing scholarly and policy literature provides a sufficient empirical basis

(Olawale, Chinagozi & Joe (2023). We began by defining inclusion criteria: sources published between 2017

and 2024, focused on Kenyan CBC implementation at the primary level, and addressing teacher training,

pedagogical competence, or resource availability. Databases consulted included Google Scholar, JSTOR, ERIC,

and institutional repositories of the Ministry of Education, KICD, and UNICEF Kenya. Grey literature such as

county directorate reports, policy briefs, and conference proceedings was also incorporated to capture localized

data on Garissa County’s educational context.

Data extraction and synthesis followed a thematic content analysis approach (Humble & Mozelius (2022) Each

document was reviewed for information on: (a) CBC-related in-service training coverage; (b) teachers’

self-reported confidence in learner-centered methodologies; and (c) access to curriculum support materials and

instructional infrastructure. Themes were coded iteratively, allowing convergence of findings across sources and

identification of gaps specific to Township Ward. The synthesis yielded a nuanced picture of teacher

preparedness, highlighting both systemic constraints such as limited professional development opportunities and

resource shortages and emerging best practices in remote and arid settings. This method ensured rigorous,

evidence-based insights to inform policy and practice in support of equitable CBC rollout.

RESEARCH FINDINGS

The reviewed studies collectively illuminate significant challenges facing the implementation of the

Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) in Kenya, particularly regarding teacher competency, financial adequacy,

and infrastructural readiness. Wambua and Mwangi (2022) provide critical insights into the inadequacy of post-

training support, with only 38% of teachers in Machakos County feeling adequately prepared despite attending

initial Ministry of Education workshops. From the lens of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, this gap undermines

the scaffolding role of teachers in learners' cognitive development, especially in Grades 6–8 where tasks require

more advanced facilitation. Vygotsky’s emphasis on the importance of guided learning within the Zone of

Proximal Development (ZPD) suggests that without ongoing teacher professional development, learners may

fail to realize their potential competencies. The absence of continuous mentorship or reflective pedagogical

support indicates that policy reforms must extend beyond one-off workshops to sustained capacity-building

mechanisms aligned with classroom realities.

Building on this, the findings of Kimeu and Muthoni in Kajiado County reinforce the claim that teacher training

programs are misaligned with practical CBC classroom needs. With only 29% of respondents effectively using

formative assessment and learner-centered techniques, the implementation remains superficial. Here, Epstein’s

Theory of Parental and Institutional Involvement becomes relevant schools are not isolated in the CBC

ecosystem but are deeply embedded within institutional and policy support systems. If teacher development does

not evolve to reflect CBC-specific content knowledge and pedagogical application, then broader curriculum

goals such as critical thinking and problem-solving will remain aspirational. The conceptual gap between

training content and the demands of a CBC classroom underscores a systemic weakness in curriculum design

and teacher preparation coherence.

The financial dimension is equally troubling. Chege and Njuguna (2023), as well as Ochieng and Mutinda,

expose how underfunding and irregular capitation compromise the realization of equitable CBC implementation.

More than 70% of sampled schools in Kiambu and Murang’a lacked funds for essential CBC activities, while

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rural schools in Kisumu and Homa Bay reported heavy reliance on parents for supplementary resources. This

brings Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory into play, particularly the exosystem and macrosystem

levels where government policies and economic structures directly affect school operations. A curriculum model

rooted in performance-based learning and digital integration cannot thrive in environments where material

inequity persists. Moreover, the disconnect between government budgeting and actual classroom needs such as

funding for science kits, ICT tools, and continuous assessments signals an urgent need for CBC-specific financial

planning and tracking mechanisms that align with competency-driven outcomes.

On infrastructure, Koech et al. (2024) and Mwakio & Cherono (2023) point to severe limitations in the physical

and technological environments required for CBC delivery. With less than 40% of junior secondary schools

equipped with proper science labs and ICT tools, and many schools lacking electricity or internet, the capacity

for experiential and digital learning key CBC pillars remains underdeveloped. These findings resonate with

Vygotsky’s view of the learning environment as a critical mediator of knowledge construction, as well as

Bronfenbrenner’s emphasis on the microsystem and mesosystem spaces where learners directly interact with

resources and facilitators. The methodological gap identified in infrastructure evaluations also questions the

reliability of national reporting mechanisms and suggests the need for localized, school-level audits to inform

policy decisions.

BRIDGING GAPS: PROPOSED MODEL AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Proposed Model

The Proposed Model for Strengthening Public Primary Teacher Preparedness and Equitable Implementation of

the (CBC) in Marginalized Regions conceptualizes how multi-dimensional factors teacher development,

pedagogical alignment, financing, infrastructure, decentralization, and stakeholder governance interact to enable

successful CBC implementation. It draws from Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological

Systems Theory, Epstein’s Model, and Stakeholder Theory.

Figure 1: An Integrated Framework for CBC Implementation in Marginalized Regions of Kenya

Table 1: Linking Teacher Development, Infrastructure, and Governance in Marginalized Kenyan Contexts

Component

Key Strategy

Operational

Mechanism

Expected Outcome

Theoretical

Foundation

Teacher

Continuous,

Mentoring, coaching, Improved instructional Vygotsky’s

ZPD

Capacity

Development

modular in-service school-based CPD

TPD

competence in CBC (scaffolding

delivery growth)

for

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Pedagogical

Alignment

Curriculum

Performance-based,

Coherence

between Instructional Design

redesign for teacher project-based learning training and classroom Theory

education

integration

practice

Competency-

Aligned

Financing

CBC-specific

budget formula

Resource allocation Equitable and adequate Bronfenbrenner’s

for science kits, ICT, resourcing for CBC

and projects

Exosystem

Infrastructure

Equity

National

infrastructure

tracker

CBC Investments in labs, Reduced

digital tools, disparities

regional Bronfenbrenner’s

in CBC Microsystem

classrooms in ASAL delivery

areas

Decentralized

Curriculum

Support

Sub-county

Curriculum

Support

(CSCs)

Peer

resource

Centers feedback loops

coaching, Reflective

hubs, empowered

and Epstein’s

teaching Community-School

Engagement Model

workforce

Multi-

Policy

review Regular

gap Responsive

and Stakeholder Theory

Stakeholder

Governance

mechanism

TSC,

with assessment, feedback localized CBC policy

KICD, incorporation evolution

NGOs, etc.

Recommendations

Building on the insights of Wambua & Mwangi (2022) and Kimeu & Muthoni, it is imperative that the Ministry

of Education (MoE), in collaboration with the Teachers Service Commission (TSC), develop a mandatory,

modular and school-based in-service training framework. This TPD should address practical classroom realities

particularly formative assessment, digital integration, and learner-centered methodologies. Drawing from

Vygotsky’s theory, such programs should include mentoring and peer learning to scaffold teacher growth within

their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).

There exists a disconnect between teacher training content and actual instructional needs at the classroom level.

Teacher education institutions and curriculum developers must ensure that CBC training curricula reflect

classroom demands. Emphasis should be placed on performance-based assessment, project-based learning, and

individualized instruction.

As highlighted by Chege & Njuguna (2023), the current government capitation model is inadequate. The

Ministry of Education should initiate a CBC-specific funding formula that factors in infrastructure development,

ICT integration, science kits, and co-curricular project support. This should be anchored in the Public Finance

Management Act to ensure accountability and timely disbursement. Drawing from Bronfenbrenner’s exosystem,

financial policy is a structural enabler of curriculum success and must match learning demands.

Infrastructure is a foundational enabler of competency-based learning. Based on the findings of Koech et al.

(2024) and Mwakio & Cherono (2023), the government must commit to urgent investment in classroom

expansion, laboratory construction, and school digital infrastructure especially in ASAL and marginalized

counties such as Garissa. A national CBC Infrastructure Tracker should be introduced to regularly audit readiness

and inform equitable resource allocation. The microsystem, as emphasized by Bronfenbrenner, must provide

learners with adequate tools to thrive.

To reduce dependency on centralized teacher training, the MoE should establish Curriculum Support Centers at

the sub-county level. These hubs would offer peer-coaching, resource-sharing, ICT access, and continuous

formative feedback. This aligns with Epstein’s model by fostering collaboration between institutions and

communities, while also empowering teachers to engage in reflective practice without isolation.

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The implementation of CBC must be guided by a dynamic policy review structure involving Teachers Service

Commission (TSC), Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD), Kenya Primary School Heads

Association (KEPSHA), Non-Government Organizations (NGOs), development partners, and local education

stakeholders. Such a mechanism would continuously assess gaps in training, funding, and infrastructure while

ensuring that curriculum implementation remains responsive to localized needs especially in historically

underserved regions like Township Ward in Garissa County.

CONCLUSIONS

The implementation of the Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) in Kenya presents a transformative shift in

pedagogy, yet its success is largely dependent on the preparedness and support structures surrounding classroom

teachers. This study focused on public primary schools in Township Ward, Garissa County a region grappling

with deep-seated educational marginalization. The findings revealed that teachers in this context face significant

constraints, including insufficient CBC-specific training, inadequate access to curriculum resources, and limited

infrastructure, all of which hinder effective curriculum delivery. The evidence highlights that without addressing

these foundational challenges, the broader goals of CBC such as fostering critical thinking, creativity, and learner

autonomy may remain unattainable in underserved regions. Finally, strengthening CBC adoption in marginalized

areas requires more than policy rollout; it demands systemic alignment, adequate resourcing, and continuous

capacity-building. By operationalizing recommendations, education stakeholders can promote equitable access

to quality, competency-driven education and ensure that no learner is left behind due to geographic or structural

disadvantage.

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