INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025

Application of Theory of Mind in Analyzing Communication

Behavior Leading to Umrah Package Fraud among Umrah Pilgrims

*Maizatul Haizan Mahbob., Mohd Azul Mohamad Salleh., Muhammad Adnan Pitchan., Alyaa Nabihah

Zainal Abu

Universiti Kebangsaan

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.91100259

Received: 18 November 2025; Accepted: 27 November 2025; Published: 06 December 2025

ABSTRACT

Umrah fraud is no longer a new issue and continues to be a concern among the Muslim community in Malaysia.

This study focuses on the main objective of identifying the relationship between cognitive, affective, and

conative elements in pilgrims’ communication behavior when choosing umrah packages, which in the end may

expose them to the risk of fraud. These three elements are framed based on the Theory of Mind (ToM), which

explains how human beings understand and interpret the behavior of others through mental processes such as

beliefs, intentions, and desires. From this perspective, the study seeks to understand how pilgrims form

perceptions of the information received, the emotions involved in the selection process, as well as the intentions

or behavioral tendencies to subscribe to a particular package.

This study employs a qualitative approach through the focus group discussion (FGD) method involving

participants among prospective umrah pilgrims. The findings of the discussion show that pilgrims who have

little exposure in terms of cognitive information, are easily influenced affectively, and act impulsively

(conatively) are more likely to become victims of fraud. Locality factors such as living in rural areas, low levels

of education, and being above 50 years of age were also identified as high-risk groups. These individuals often

make decisions without critically verifying sources of information or seeking alternative views.

The implications of the study indicate that the Theory of Mind is relevant in the field of communication,

particularly in understanding patterns of communication behaviour related to users’ decision-making. This study

also suggests that the ToM approach be expanded in other communication studies involving emotional

manipulation and purchasing decisions.

Keywords: Theory of Mind; media literacy; communication behavior; umrah fraud; umrah pilgrims

INTRODUCTION

The hajj and umrah pilgrimages are important religious practices in Islam, where hajj is obligatory once in a

lifetime for Muslims who are capable, whereas umrah is recommended (sunat) and can be performed throughout

the year. The improvement in the socioeconomic status of Malaysian society has encouraged an increase in the

number of umrah pilgrims every year [43]. This phenomenon has also stimulated the development of the Islamic

tourism industry as more tour operators offer umrah packages at competitive prices using various marketing

strategies.

Advances in communication technology, especially social media, broaden the promotional reach of operators

through platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and TikTok. However, this development has also opened space

for misconduct and manipulation by irresponsible parties. Over the past decade, media reports have shown an

increase in the number of umrah package fraud cases that have caused losses amounting to millions of ringgits

and pilgrims stranded at airports [10], [9]. Government initiatives through the i-Umrah portal and the IMAMS

application are aimed at monitoring agencies’ operations but remain limited as they do not provide mechanisms

for checking complaints and comprehensive information about legitimate operators.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

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This fraud issue is closely related to media literacy levels and communication behavior in society. Although

social media penetration in Malaysia is high, it does not necessarily reflect good media literacy. A lack of ability

to evaluate information, understand implicit messages, and scrutinize source credibility causes users to easily

fall prey to fake advertisements and unrealistic offers [32], [40]. In addition, communication behavior—

including language use, tone of voice, body language, listening ability, and response—also influences how

critical individuals are when making decisions.

Research Problem And Objectives

The issue of umrah package fraud is increasingly worrying because it not only causes losses to prospective

pilgrims but also tarnishes the image of the Islamic tourism industry. Forms of fraud identified include companies

operating without valid licenses, the use of fake identities, misleading websites and online advertisements, as

well as the misuse of celebrities or influencers as bait. There are also agencies that change packages without

customers’ consent, provide false information on flight schedules, accommodation, and additional services, or

fail to refund payments on the pretext of rising costs [34], [17].

The elderly, pensioners, and low-income groups (B40) are the most affected because of their low level of

awareness and lack of engagement in official checks before choosing an operator [36]. This situation shows that

although existing laws are sufficient in terms of provisions, they are still not effective in closing the space for

manipulation [37]. In addition, low media literacy in society makes them easily trapped by advertisements and

false information on social media [32].

What is still not clearly understood is how the attitudes and patterns of thought of pilgrims—specifically from

cognitive, affective, and conative dimensions—shape the way they communicate, make decisions, and

eventually become ensnared in umrah fraud. The Theory of Mind (ToM) is viewed as suitable to explain this

mechanism because it emphasizes individuals’ ability to understand the mental states of others and to predict

behavior based on communication. Although ToM has been widely applied in psychological studies involving

children, business, and marketing, there has not yet been a study that uses it to examine umrah fraud issues

through the lens of communication behavior. Therefore, the objective of this study is to identify the relationship

between cognitive, affective, and conative elements in pilgrims’ communication behavior when selecting umrah

packages, which ultimately may expose them to the risk of fraud.

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE

The hajj and umrah are key obligations in Islam that are closely related to financial, physical, and spiritual

capability. Hajj is compulsory once in a lifetime for Muslims who are able, while umrah is recommended but

strongly encouraged [31], [38]. The performance of these rituals not only functions as an act of worship, but also

as a manifestation of gratitude, sacrifice, and a venue for global congregation of Muslims [5], [44].

However, the increase in the number of umrah pilgrims has brought other implications, particularly in relation

to umrah package fraud. Statistics show that thousands of police reports have been lodged involving losses of

millions of ringgits, with various modus operandi including unreasonably cheap packages, unjustified travel

postponements, the use of celebrities or religious figures as bait, as well as exploitation of legal loopholes [8],

[10], [28]. Although MOTAC and JAWHAR have provided guidelines and management manuals, enforcement

remains limited, allowing problematic agencies to continue operating. Previous studies have also emphasized

that although existing laws are capable of protecting consumers [37], gaps in implementation are often

manipulated, and cases are classified as civil rather than criminal [17].

Media literacy factors have also been identified as contributing to society’s vulnerability. Even though social

media penetration in Malaysia is high [22], media literacy levels remain low, causing users to be easily influenced

by fake advertisements, inaccurate information, and sweet promises in digital promotions [32], [40]. Studies

abroad have also found moderate media literacy levels among university students [21], rural women [16], and

the elderly [44]— indicating vulnerability across different societal groups.

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Besides media literacy, communication behavior also plays an important role. Communication is not limited to

verbal messages, but also includes nonverbal elements such as tone of voice, facial expressions, and body

language [3], [39]. These elements are often exploited by irresponsible agents who are skillful at convincing

pilgrims through persuasive communication styles. In the context of social psychology, consumer attitudes—

which consist of cognitive, affective, and conative components—are also significant factors. Limited knowledge

(cognitive), emotional belief (affective), and a tendency to act without verification (conative) often facilitate

manipulation by scammers [6], [12].

Individual attitudes play an important role in social psychology because they influence perception, behavior, and

communication. Attitudes encompass affective evaluations that can be positive or negative toward individuals,

objects, or ideas, and are influenced by key characteristics such as affect (emotion), cognition (knowledge),

conation (intent), effectiveness, contextual relevance, acceptability, stability, and consistency. The cognitive

component refers to knowledge and perceptions formed through direct experience and information, whereas

affect is associated with emotions, and conation refers to the intention to act [12].

In the communication context, cognition includes mental processes such as perception, comprehension, message

interpretation, and knowledge formation that influence how messages are encoded and decoded [42], [26].

Attitudes and communication patterns formed through these mental processes determine the level of openness,

honesty, empathy, and trust in social interactions, including in purchasing decisions or the selection of umrah

packages [20].

The Theory of Mind (ToM) is seen as suitable to explain this mechanism because it emphasizes individuals’

ability to understand the mental states of others and to predict behavior based on communication. Although ToM

has been widely applied in psychological, child development, business, and marketing research, it has not yet

been used to examine umrah fraud issues through the perspective of communication behavior.

Theory of Mind (ToM) refers to the ability of individuals to understand their own mental states and those of

others in order to predict behavior [35]. It enables a person to assess others’ intentions, emotions, beliefs, and

desires, thereby facilitating social interaction and effective communication [15], [41]. ToM is often explained

through Hilgard’s Trilogy of Mind (1980), which classifies mental functions into cognitive, affective, and

conative domains [18]. The cognitive domain encompasses knowledge acquisition and processing; the affective

domain involves emotions and attitudes toward objects or situations; while the conative domain refers to

intentions and tendencies to act [29].

The Tripartite ToM Model [13] reinforces the separation of these three domains and has been widely used in

consumer behavior research to predict customer loyalty, perceived value, and purchasing decisions [7], [33],

[27]. Studies have shown that interactions among these domains have a significant impact on social behavior,

including the tendency to trust information or be influenced by persuasive communication [25].

In the context of umrah fraud, cognitive weaknesses (limited knowledge of official procedures), affective

weaknesses (emotional trust without verification), and conative weaknesses (immediate action without

checking) increase pilgrims’ vulnerability to manipulation. Previous studies have also shown that the

communication strategies of stakeholders such as agencies, mutawwif, and authorities influence user perceptions

and decisions [4], [19]. Therefore, the use of ToM as an analytical framework is appropriate because it provides

a comprehensive understanding of how mental and communication factors interact to shape pilgrims’ behavior,

and how gaps in these three domains can be exploited by irresponsible parties.

Overall, past studies indicate that umrah fraud is not merely related to weaknesses in the law, but is also

influenced by low media literacy, consumer attitudes that tend to trust offers without verification, and the

persuasive communication style of operators. While many studies have examined law, media literacy, and

communication separately, there is still a lack of research that integrates these elements within a psychological

framework such as Theory of Mind to understand the communication mechanisms that lead to umrah fraud.

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This study adopts a qualitative design based on Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) to obtain an in-depth

understanding of communication behavior that leads to umrah package fraud. This approach was chosen because

it allows participants to share experiences interactively and collectively, thus producing rich data based on group

dynamics [24], [30].

Sampling and Participants

Purposive sampling was used to select participants who met specific criteria to answer the research objectives.

The participants consisted of 17 individuals divided into four focus groups, comprising umrah pilgrims from the

B40 group and pensioners, representatives of licensed umrah tour operators, certified mutawwif, and officers

from the Licensing and Tourism Enforcement Division of the Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture (MOTAC).

The selection of these groups was based on reports indicating that low-income groups and pensioners are primary

targets of umrah package fraud [17], while industry representatives and authorities provide perspectives on

implementation and enforcement. However, for the purpose of this article, only the umrah pilgrims group is

discussed, while the other FGD groups—namely the mutawwif group, the Umrah and Ziarah Tour Operator

group, and the Government agency group (MOTAC)—are not included in the discussion.

Data Collection Process

FGDs were conducted online to facilitate participation by those living far away or with time constraints. Each

session involved four participants and was conducted for 1 hour and 30 minutes with a moderator (researcher)

and an assistant to record nonverbal observations and ensure the smooth running of the session [23]. Semi-

structured questions were used to maintain focus on the research objectives while allowing participants to freely

share their views. Written consent was obtained from participants digitally, and the confidentiality of their

identities was guaranteed.

Data Analysis

The FGD sessions were recorded, fully transcribed, and reviewed by supervisors and subject-matter experts for

content accuracy. Data analysis used a multi-stage coding process with Atlas.ti version 9 software. The initial

coding phase involved generating open categories based on recurring keywords and themes, followed by focused

coding to form main themes aligned with Theory of Mind (ToM) as the analytical framework [11]. The analysis

results are presented as conceptual themes linking cognitive, affective, and conative elements to communication

behavior that leads to umrah fraud.

Ethical Considerations

This study adhered to research ethics procedures, including obtaining ethics clearance before data collection.

Participants were clearly briefed on the purpose of the study, confidentiality rights, and the use of data for

academic purposes.

Overall, the FGDs conducted with key stakeholders enabled the researchers to obtain in-depth empirical data,

thereby achieving the study’s objective of understanding the communication mechanisms and vulnerability

factors of pilgrims to umrah fraud.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

This study examines the connection between cognitive, affective, and conative factors in the process of selecting

umrah packages by pilgrims that ultimately may expose them to fraud. The analysis is based on findings from

FGDs with the umrah pilgrims’ informant group.

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Cognitive: Knowledge, Perception, and Media Literacy

The cognitive aspect refers to the level of knowledge and thinking processes of pilgrims when evaluating umrah

packages. The findings show that pilgrims’ sources of information depend on locality background and age

factors. For urban pilgrims, access to communication technology enables them to compare prices, company

reputations, and packages through online platforms such as Facebook, WhatsApp, Google, and other social

media. In contrast, rural or elderly pilgrims prioritize offline information, particularly from close acquaintances,

family members, religious teachers, or local figures, and tend to trust their recommendations without

verification. This trust is rooted in the religious perception that matters related to worship are unlikely to be used

for fraudulent trade, thereby increasing the risk of manipulation.

Mutawwif emphasized that first-time prospective pilgrims need more guidance because their information

literacy level is low, whereas experienced pilgrims are more critical in evaluating packages. As company

representatives in the Holy Land, mutawwif often become immediate points of reference for pilgrims facing

package-related issues, which demands strong communication skills and quick problem-solving.

The findings also highlight media literacy issues as a critical factor. Post-pandemic technological developments

require pilgrims to use applications such as Nusuk or digital visa platforms. However, many pilgrims—especially

the elderly—are left behind in mastering these technologies, causing them to rely more on traditional

communication channels. Informants suggested that umrah courses should emphasize digital literacy skills and

the use of official applications to avoid fraud risks and to facilitate management in the Holy Land.

In addition, there is a growing phenomenon of DIY umrah packages that are increasingly popular through social

media, offering lower prices and flexibility. Although recognized as high-risk (death, health problems, loss),

lower costs have led pilgrims to still choose this method. This indicates a gap between risk awareness and actual

actions, consistent with literature findings that cognitive understanding does not necessarily drive behavioral

change [14].

Affective: Attitudes, Emotions, and Social Influence

The affective aspect refers to emotional elements, attitudes, and pilgrims’ beliefs toward umrah packages. The

FGDs showed differing views among groups. Informants from the pilgrims and mutawwif groups believed that

influencers or religious figures do not play a significant role in influencing decisions, whereas tour operators and

MOTAC insisted otherwise. In rural areas, religious figures and influential individuals are considered trusted

authorities, making communities more exposed to manipulation.

The modus operandi of fraud syndicates includes using imams or bilal as “ambassadors” for fake cheap

packages, offering prices as low as RM3,500 with claims of subsidies from the Saudi government. A case in

Kelantan involving losses of RM10 million with more than 3,000 victims demonstrates the impact of such

influence.

Besides external influence, pilgrims’ attitudes of remaining silent despite dissatisfaction with services or

misconduct also contribute to the cycle of fraud. For example, issues such as the use of foreign mutawwif who

struggle to communicate are not reported because pilgrims do not want to “cause trouble,” leading companies to

repeat the same mistakes. This passive attitude resembles ToM findings in political contexts, where individuals

recognize the falsity of information but choose not to speak out to avoid social risk [14].

Conative: Actions, Motivation, and Decisions

The conative aspect assesses the determination, effort, and actions of pilgrims in processing package

information. Generally, awareness of the need to conduct cross-checks on operators and package information is

acknowledged by all groups. However, implementation is not comprehensive. Three out of four pilgrim

informants admitted that they had never conducted cross-checks because they trusted the company’s reputation

or acquaintances’ recommendations. The lack of initiative increases the risk of becoming fraud victims, as also

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noted by Ardani et al. [1], who found that weak information literacy makes it easier for illegal travel operators

to deceive pilgrims.

In addition, cheap package prices are a key attraction. Fraud cases that offer low prices or “subsidies” show the

tendency of society to take risks due to perceived economic value. However, better-educated pilgrims and

younger groups are more likely to conduct additional checks before purchasing cheap packages, indicating

interaction between educational background and conative actions.

At the same time, religious sentiment becomes a foundation of trust that is easily manipulated. The 2022 Visa

Furada fraud case, involving losses of more than RM2.37 million to 400 affluent pilgrims, demonstrates that

strong trust in certain parties prompted the purchase of expensive packages without verification. Syndicates

exploited pilgrims’ deep desire to perform worship, regardless of socioeconomic or educational background.

Apart from price factors, social influence also shapes pilgrims’ decisions. Support or pressure from family

members and acquaintances can change decisions even after payment has been made. According to informants

from tour operators, pilgrims with low educational levels are more easily influenced by those around them,

whereas better-educated individuals tend to make their own assessments based on official checks and customer

reviews.

A deeper analysis shows that the three dimensions of Theory of Mind—cognitive, affective, and conative—are

interlinked in influencing umrah pilgrims’ decisions, thereby creating room for manipulation and fraud.

Cognition: Pilgrims’ knowledge about packages and operators is strongly influenced by geographical factors,

age, and media literacy. Urban pilgrims are more capable of checking and comparing packages digitally, while

rural and elderly pilgrims rely more on face-to-face communication, making them more vulnerable. Limited

exposure to official applications such as Nusuk further reinforces fraud risks.

Affect: Emotions and religious perceptions form the basis of trust toward package providers. Religious figures

or influencers are seen as authoritative sources, and syndicates take advantage of this perception to promote fake

packages. Pilgrims’ passive attitude in not providing feedback also allows misconduct to continue.

Conation: Although awareness of cross-checking exists, many pilgrims do not take such steps. Price factors,

emotional impulses, and social influence often override rational consideration. This phenomenon aligns with the

Visa Furada and cheap package fraud cases, which show how religious motivation and perceived value influence

actions.

Overall, these findings assert that umrah fraud does not occur solely because of syndicates’ cunning tactics, but

is also influenced by gaps in media literacy, passive attitudes, religious perceptions, and weaknesses in

verification actions by the pilgrims themselves. The ToM framework demonstrates that interactions among

cognitive, affective, and conative dimensions explain why society is easily influenced by religious narratives,

economic offers, and social trust. These findings affirm the need for communication interventions based on

digital literacy and consumer education strategies tailored to socio-demographic contexts.

Table 1: Summary of Findings Based on Theory of Mind (ToM) Domains and Risk Factors of Umrah Fraud

ToM

Dimensions

of Risk Factors of Umrah Fraud Example FGD Quotes

Domain

Communication Behavior

Lack of knowledge about Low financial and religious “I didn’t even know there was a

Cognitive

company licenses, real costs, literacy; no background checks MOTAC website to check

(Thinking)

and umrah procedures.

on companies.

company

licenses.”

(B40

participants)

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Reliance

on

informal Dependence on advice from “I just followed my friend

information sources.

friends/relatives

without because she said it was cheap; I

official verification.

never thought to really check.”

Easily

influenced

by Strong desire to perform umrah “I was afraid I wouldn’t get the

Affective

emotional narratives (e.g. immediately; urgent emotions chance to go for umrah, so I

(Emotion)

“immediate

reward,” influence decisions.

rushed to pay the deposit.”

“promotional price”).

Feeling of trust toward Stereotypical perception of “He wore a robe and recited

individuals wearing religious religious appearance as a prayers, so I immediately felt

attire/appearing pious.

marker of credibility.

confident.”

Making payments without Careless attitude toward official “I never got any contract, just

Conative

(Action)

written contracts.

documents

receipts.

and

payment the itinerary on WhatsApp.”

Lack of action in reporting Feeling ashamed or afraid of “I knew I’d been cheated, but I

fraud.

being blamed; perception that was too lazy to go to the police

the complaint process is station.”

complicated.

Complete dependence on third Handing over control without “I left everything to them

parties.

oversight; no involvement in because I don’t know how to

reviewing travel arrangements. handle the visa.”

CONCLUSION

The issue of umrah package fraud in Malaysia reflects the challenges of media literacy, financial literacy, and

religious literacy among Muslim society in the digital communication era. Findings based on Theory of Mind

(ToM) confirm that the communication behavior of umrah pilgrims exposed to fraud is rooted in three main

domains: cognitive, affective, and conative.

From the cognitive aspect, pilgrims show low awareness of official procedures, authentic information sources,

and fraud risks. From the affective aspect, emotional influences such as urgent desire to perform worship and

trust in the religious appearance of certain individuals have driven hasty decisions. From the conative aspect, the

tendency to make payments without official documents, to hand over all travel matters to third parties, and the

reluctance to report fraud reflect weaknesses in preventive actions.

This analysis emphasizes that umrah fraud does not stem solely from weak enforcement, but is closely related

to communication patterns, social perceptions, and pilgrims’ psychological factors. Therefore, more

comprehensive intervention approaches are needed, including education on media and religious literacy,

strengthening evidence-based communication mechanisms, and empowering consumers through risk awareness

campaigns.

The use of the Theory of Mind framework enables a deeper understanding of how manipulative communication

affects decision-making processes, thus providing a strong foundation for policymakers, umrah industry players,

and authorities to design more effective fraud prevention strategies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The study “Analysis of Communication Behavior in Addressing Umrah Fraud Issues” is funded by an industry

grant from Profesional Mutawwif Development Sdn Bhd (SK-2024-016).

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