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Development, Validation, and Application of the Secondary Traumatic

Stress Scale (STSS) in the Kenyan Context

Adie Gabriel Ugbong, Dr Jasper Isoe

Tangaza University

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.91100277

Received: 10 November 2025; Accepted: 20 November 2025; Published: 06 December 2025

ABSTRACT

There is a growing recognition about the mental health of those in the helping profession, especially since they

encounter traumatic clients and incidents. As a result, there is an increasing interest in studying secondary

traumatic stress (STS) among this population. Many validation studies of the Secondary Traumatic Stress

Scale (STSS) have been carried out yielding positive outcomes, yet there remains a gap in the local validation

or adaptation of the STSS in Kenya. The purpose of this study was to examine the development, validation and

application of the STSS in the assessment of STS in the Kenyan context. This was achieved by reviewing

current literature from peer-reviewed journals between 2020 to 2025. The studies presented here were screened

for their empirical use, their translation process, and their validation or adaptation of the STSS. Some

important information extracted from these reviewed sources included the factor structures of the tool, the

internal consistency indices, contextual suitability, and the translation methods. Global validation studies

(Chinese, Italian, Urdu, French) demonstrated strong reliability of the STSS with two studies (Italian &

Chinese versions) indicating some modifications or restructuring of the factor structure of the STSS. The

African studies indicate that the STSS has high internal consistency (α > .80), but they all lack cultural

validation, translation procedures and confirmatory analysis (CFA). Although the STSS has also been used in

Kenya across the healthcare and humanitarian fields and has exhibited high internal consistency, no validation

studies have been undertaken to test its structural validity. This gap raises concerns about the structural and

cultural suitability of the tool within Kenya and Africa in general. This study recommends that future research

should prioritize the validation of the STSS including translating, CFA, and measurement invariance testing to

ensure that the STSS culturally and contextually reflects the phenomena of secondary traumatic stress within

Kenyan populations and Africa in general.

Keywords: Secondary Traumatic Stress (STS), Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale (STSS) Culturally validated

tools, Psychometric assessments, Kenya.

INTRODUCTION

The field of Psychometrics is concerned with the measurement and prediction of behaviour, aptitudes, and

psychological traits (Wijsen, 2022). Lovett (2023) describes psychometric as the science which underlies

psychological measurement. Exploring the connection of components within certain constructs and their

external phenomena requires measurement which is fundamental. Lovett (2023) uses an interesting term

“practical psychometric” in arguing that psychometrics as used for assessment in the psychological field

enables us to make informed judgements regarding which specific tests are more suitable for a client, and how

to make judgement from the results of these assessments. Therefore, measurement and psychometrics are

important in the field of psychology to evaluate merits of psychological assessments (Shou et al., 2022).

Putting it simply, psychometric assessments in psychology helps to bridge the gap between theory and practice.

It enables practitioners to quantify latent traits and constructs such as stress, anxiety, empathy, resilience and

trauma.

Psychological science has gained respect and acceptability due to its insistence on systematically and

accurately describing the phenomenon within its domain of inquiry; this is what assessment is all about

(Chirica et al., 2024). Assessment as used in this work refers to any standardized psychological testing that

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produces a numerical score which are then interpreted in line with the various constructs that they aim to

measure or assess (Hey et al., 2023). These assessment tools are usually developed in form of rating scales,

questionnaires, or standardized observation procedures. For instance, we might hand a questionnaire to a

healthcare worker to assess for secondary traumatic stress, or compassion fatigue, and at the end the answers

are summed up and the results are interpreted in line with the established scoring guidelines. Assessment in

modern psychological practice is built on well-grounded empirical, theoretical and evidence-based

frameworks, which lead to effective interventions (Furr, 2020). Hence, assessment tools with poor

psychometric properties could lead to ineffective diagnosis and interventions.

In recent years, there has been an interdisciplinary insistence on the need for evidence-based practices (EBP) in

achieving accurate diagnostic outcomes (Dombrowski et al., 2021; Hoffmann et al., 2023). The field of

psychology is one of such fields that places emphasis on the importance of EBP especially as it concerns

assessment. This reliance on EBP is central in achieving ethical and effective therapeutic interventions (Hey et

al., 2023). EBP is achieved in the psychological field through the use of efficient psychometric assessments

tools that ensure there is consistency, accountability, and effectiveness in therapeutic decisions. The insistence

on robust and evidence-based psychometric assessments can be evidenced in the promotion of Evidence-Based

Practice in Psychology (EBPP); a model highly promoted by the APA and other professional psychological

bodies (Ogle et al., 2024). Also, the World Health Organization (WHO) has noted the increase in mental health

concerns and through its programs advocate for the improvement of mental health practice worldwide (WHO,

2024).

This concern about the rise of mental health issues has also been resounded by several studies within Kenya

(Ali et al., 2022; Ndetei et al., 2022), especially among people in helping professions such as healthcare

personnel, police officers and teachers (Adie et al., 2024; Muchiri et al., 2024). Despite the growing need for

psychological services, there are concerns that mental health professionals have heavily relied on the use of

western developed tools for psychological assessments and interventions (Nyongesa et al., 2022; Kipkemoi et

al., 2024). Some progresses have been made through the validation of some of these tools such as the Primary

Care PTSD care (Mwangala et al., 2024), and the validation of the English and Swahili adaptation of the

patient health questionnaire–9 (Tele et al., 2023), etc. Only few assessment tools have been validated or

developed within the Kenyan context. Hence the heavy reliance on tools that are not locally developed or

validated leads to challenges in accurate assessment and intervention outcomes. The growing mental health

research among healthcare personnel in Kenya highlights the urgency of evaluating, validating and adapting

assessment tools such as the Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale (STSS) in order to ensure their cultural validity

and reliability among the Kenyan population.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to examine the development, validation and application of the Secondary

Traumatic Stress Scale (STSS) developed by Bride et al. (2004) in the assessment for secondary trauma stress

(STS) in the Kenyan context. Current literature acknowledges that healthcare personnel are exposed to the

traumatic experiences of their clients, making these healthcare professionals vulnerable to experiencing

secondary traumatic stress (Diop et al., 2022; Kanyanta et al., 2023). Despite the acknowledgement that

healthcare professionals experience STS, few assessment tools have been put through psychometric evaluation

and validation in the local Kenyan context in assessing this phenomenon. The STSS by Bride et al. (2004) is a

standardized tool used widely and internationally, but its validity and reliability and cultural relevance within

the Kenyan context has not yet been examined. Hence, this current study seeks to examine the current

literature on STSS, its development, psychometric properties, and evaluate its application in mental health

practice within Kenya. The current effort contributes to the advancement of evidence-based psychometric

assessments grounded in the Kenyan cultural context.

METHODOLOGY

The literature search conducted for this study was targeted to identify studies relevant to the development,

linguistic, validation, and the psychometric evaluation of the STSS. The search for literature was conducted

across some databases such as Google Scholar, PsycINFO, PubMed, and African Journals Online (AJOL). The

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search included publications between 2000 to 2025 in order to capture the most recent methodological and

cultural development of the STSS. The terms and phrases used during the search included “Secondary

Traumatic Stress Scale”, “Secondary Traumatic Stress,” “STSS Validation,” “Psychometric Properties,”

“Cross-cultural Adaptation,” “Assessment Tools,” “Kenya,” and “Africa.”

The inclusion criteria included peer-reviewed empirical papers; studies that provided psychometric data on the

STSS; and studies that examined the cultural, linguistic or contextual adaptation of psychological assessment

tools. Studies were excluded if they lacked empirical data; studies that did not report psychometric properties

of the STSS, studies that were unavailable in full-text, and studies that focused on other forms of trauma aside

from secondary trauma. The inclusion and exclusion criteria helped the study to remain focused on the task

that it set out to achieve. With regards to the screening process, there were two stages: first, the titles and

abstract were reviewed for their relevance to STSS. Secondly, studies which passed the first stage were

reviewed fully, examining their suitability for the paper. After eligible studies were identified, a narrative

synthesis approach was used to analyse and integrate the findings. This analysis and integration focused on

accessibility, psychometric performance, linguistic adaptation, cultural relevance, and ethical considerations.

The thematic and comparative approach aided the comprehensive critique of the STSS and especially with

regards to the Kenyan context. Figure 1 below presents a flowchart outlining the process identifying, selecting,

and categorizing the literature that were used in this paper.

Figure 1: Flowchart

The flowchart in Figure 1 details how an initial pool of 160 publications were gradually screened and narrowed

to ultimately 35 publications which met the inclusion criteria. It went through the process of duplicate removal,

title and abstract screening, and full-text evaluation. The 35 studies although diverse in nature present relevant

information on psychometric assessment, STSS developments and validations, cross-cultural validation

research, and Keyan and African psychometric work. This process allowed for a coherent integration of all the

publications that were relevant to this work.

Development of the Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale (STSS)

The STSS was developed by Bride et al. (2004) in response to the need for a tool that measured traumatic

stress especially for those in the helping profession. The STSS was largely influenced by Figley’s (1999)

• Identification

•Records identified through database searching (n = 133)

•Additional records identified through citation tracking (n = 27)

•Total records identified (n = 160)

• Screening

•Records after removal of duplicates (n = 143)

•Records screened by title and abstract (n = 143)

•Records excluded (n = 97)

• Eligibility

•Full-text articles assessed for eligibility (n = 46)

•Full-text articles excluded (n = 11)

•Reasons: insufficient psychometric detail / not cross-cultural

• Included

•Studies included in the final review (n = 35)

•Categories:

•STSS translations/validations (n = 10)

•Kenyan/African studies (n = 12)

•Methodological papers (n = 7)

•Cross-cultural studies (n = 6)

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argument that those in the helping profession who consistently encounter people with trauma may also face

some emotional disruptions thereby becoming indirect victims of the traumatic event witnessed (Figley 1995).

The compassion fatigue theory as expounded by Figley argues that those who secondarily experience trauma

also tend to exhibit symptoms which are parallel to those who have directly witnessed trauma. With this

understanding and the lack of appropriate tools in measuring STS, Bride et al. (2004) developed the STSS to

specifically measure secondary trauma symptoms.

Secondary traumatic stress was operationalized as intrusion, arousal, and avoidance symptoms as stated in the

DSM-IV Criteria B (American Psychiatric Association (APA), 1994). The initial tool consisted of sixty-seven

Likert style items which was pilot tested among thirty-seven direct service providers. The tool was later

revised to a Seventeen item Likert scale, with each item representing individual symptoms as stated in the

DSM-V. This seventeen-item scale was tested among 294 master’s level licensed social workers in a

Southeastern state in the United States in the year 2001. The participants of the study were predominantly

females (81.9%) and Caucasians (77.5%). The Likert scale tool ranges from never (1) to very often (5), and the

subscales included intrusion (items 2, 3, 6, 10, 13), avoidance (1, 5, 7, 9, 12, 14, 17), and arousal (4, 8, 11, 15,

16). The STSS can be scored by summing up all items on the scale to get an overall score and summing up all

the items on each subscale to get the scores for each subscale.

Validation of the STSS

The validation process of the tool exhibited a Cronbach alpha coefficient of .93, for the total scores, and the

intrusion, avoidance, and arousal scales had a reliability of .80, .87, and .83 respectively. The factorial validity

of the STSS was achieved using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), with structural equation modelling

(SEM). The operationalized three factor model consisting of intrusion, avoidance, and arousal were all tested

and they demonstrated an adequate to good model fit to the data (Goodness of fit index (GFI) = .90;

comparative fit index (CFI) = .94; incremental fit index (IFI) = .94; and the root mean square error of

approximation (RMSEA) = .069). Finally, the inter-factor relationships (Intrusion–Avoidance = .737 (p <

.001); Intrusion–Arousal = .784 (p < .001); Avoidance–Arousal = .831 (p < .001)) supported the

multidimensional understanding of secondary traumatic stress (Bride et al., 2004).

Global Validation of the STSS

Unlike the initial validation process of the STSS which was carried out among social workers in a

Southeastern state, a study by Ting et al. (2005) sought to examine the reliability and validity of the STSS

across a national sample of social workers. The study’s participants consisted of 515 master’s level social

workers with a majority (75.6%) being female and Caucasian, and the mean age was 51 years. The results of

this study indicated a reliability coefficient of .94 for all 17 items, and the intrusion, avoidance, and arousal

subscales each scored .79, .85, and .87 respectively. A confirmatory analysis was further carried out and

indicated very high correlation between all subscales (Intrusion-Avoidance r = .96, Intrusion-Arousal r = .96,

Avoidance-Arousal r = 1.0). The three-factor model also demonstrated a good model fit (GFI = .88, CFI = .92,

and IFI = .92, RMSEA = .80), indicating acceptable fit to the data. The findings from this study by Ting et al.

(2005) supported the findings of the three-factor structure of the STSS.

Beyond the American context, there have been other validations of the STSS such as the Italian version

(Fumagalli et al., 2025), the French version (Jacobs et al., 2019), the Turkey version, the Urdu version (Mazhar

& Zaman, 2022), and the Chinese version (He et al., 2022). For instance, Fumagalli et al (2025) evaluated the

psychometric properties of the Italian version of the STSS (STSS-I) which was translated and validated by

Setti and Argentero (2021). The STSS-I was reduced to two subscales (arousal & intrusion) during its

validation process, reducing the items from the initial 17 to 15 items. The validation of the STSS-I by

Fumagalli et al. (2025) was carried out among 94 midwifery bachelor students at the University of Milano.

Cronbach’s alpha and confirmatory factor analysis were used to study the reliability and structural validity of

the STSS-I. All the parameters which were evaluated demonstrated a good fit of the tested model (RMSEA=

.079, CFI= .992 and TLI= .991). The Cronbach alpha for both subscales also indicated high reliability with the

arousal scale reporting an alpha of .90, and .84 for the intrusion subscale. The restructuring of the STSS-I from

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a three-model structure to a two-model structure suggests that the Italian version of the STSS is more attuned

to the lived experiences of healthcare workers as it concerns STS.

Secondly, another validation study worthy of note is the Chinese validation of the STSS by He et al. (2022).

The lack of a valid tool in measuring STS within the Chinese context led to the translation and validation

process of the STSS. The first step of the validation process was translating the STSS into Chinese with the

help of bilingual experts, guided by Brislin’s intercultural translation model. Data was collected from 678

clinical nurses, and Principal factor analysis was employed in extracting factors and two factors were

extracted: 10 stress items (items 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 15, 16, 17), and 7 invasion and avoidance factors (2, 3, 6,

10, 12, 13, 14). Furthermore, a confirmatory factor analysis was carried out and it demonstrated a moderate to

good fit. The incremental indices (CFI = .93, IFI = .93, TLI = .92) all indicated acceptable model fit, although

the GFI (.84) and RMSEA (.069) indicated marginal fit. Generally, these statistics are in support of the 2-factor

structure of the Chinese version of the STSS. The study also revealed that the Chinese STSS exhibited a

Cronbach coefficient alpha of .96 indicating that the tool has good internal consistency.

The validation process of the Italian version of the STSS (Fumagalli et al., 2025) and the Chinese version (He

et al., 2022) emphasizes the importance of cultural adaptations, and how this enhances the outcomes of

psychometric assessments. In the Italian context, there was a reduction of two items bring the total items from

17 to 15, and the factor was restructured reducing it from three (intrusion, avoidance, and arousal) to two

(arousal & intrusion) enhancing conceptual clarity in line with the cultural context. Also, the reliance on

linguistic, multidisciplinary teams, and culture specific models in the Chinese validation process also

highlights the dynamic nature of psychometric assessments where different cultural realities shape the

experience and manifestation of STS.

Validation of the STSS in African Context

The STSS has been increasingly applied across several African studies, however, despite several numerous

validation efforts of the tool in the United States, Europe, and Asia, there remains a gap in the evaluation of the

psychometric properties of the STSS within the African context. For Instance, a study by Mashego et al. (2023)

in South Africa examined the association between coping strategies and STS among forensic social workers.

The study utilized the original STSS tool by Bride et al. (2004) and reported the Cronbach alpha for all three

subscales (intrusion .75, avoidance .90, and arousal .88). The reliability coefficient demonstrated good internal

consistency; however, no structural or cultural validation of the tool was carried out.

Similarly, another study in Nigeria by Kwaghgbah et al. (2024) examined STS and psychological wellbeing

among humanitarian health workers in the Northwestern part of the country. The original STSS tool as

developed by Bride et al. (2004) was used in assessing STS among the study population. According to the

authors, the STSS demonstrated high reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha of .87 for the total scale and .78, .73,

and .86 for intrusion, avoidance, and arousal subscales, respectively. These studies report that the tool exhibits

good internal consistency and reliability although no validation was carried out to assess the tool’s factorial

and cultural suitability for the population tested.

Validation of the STSS in Kenya

Within the Kenyan context, there is a growing recognition about the mental health of those in the helping

profession, especially since they encounter traumatic clients and incidents. As a result of this, there is an

increasing interest in studying secondary traumatic stress among this population (Kariuki et al., 2023; Wambua

et al., 2023; Muiga et al., 2024). Although the interest in studying the phenomena of STS is increasing, there

remains a gap in the local validation or adaptation of the STSS in Kenya. A recent study by Adie et al. (2024)

in Kenya examined the relationship between STS and social support among healthcare personnel. The study

utilized the STSS tool in assessing the levels of STS and reported a Cronbach alpha coefficient of .91 showing

high internal reliability and consistency. While the internal reliability of the STSS was satisfactory in this

study, there was no factorial or cultural validation of the tool.

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Another recent study by Muchemi and King’ori (2025) examined the levels of STS among Judicial officers in

the Rift Valley Region of Kenya. They utilized the SPSS tool in assessing the levels of STS and they reported a

Cronbach alpha coefficient of .88 for the entire scale, whereas the subscales had alpha scores of .72 (intrusion),

.76 (avoidance), and .71 (arousal). These numbers also indicate that the internal consistency of the tool was

high. Despite the rising interest in the concept of STS, very few published studies use the STSS within Kenya.

Overall, the studies presented so far have reported high internal reliability of the STSS, the absence of

confirmatory analysis for the tool raises concerns about the STSS construct validity within Kenya.

Critique of the Application of STSS in the Kenyan Context

A review on the available studies within the African and Kenyan context reveals that many studies which have

utilized the STSS have reported high internal reliability (Masson & Moodley, 2020; Kanyanta et al, 2023; Adie

et al., 2024; Muchemi & King’ori, 2025), but there is a noticeable absence of structural and cultural validation

of the STSS. None of the studies have examined if the original three-factor model as developed by Bride et al.

(2004) fit the local population by carrying out confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) or factorial variance.

Another concern worthy of note is that all studies mentioned above have used the original English version of

the STSS without any consideration of cultural or linguistic adaptation as considered by other studies such as

He et al. (2022) in China. This is concerning because conceptualization of trauma or emotional distress may

vary across socio-cultural settings. Hence the use of the STSS in the African setting without validation raises

concern about cultural sensitivity and construct validity of the findings of such studies since the expression of

symptoms may differ contextually or linguistically.

Assessment tools such as the STSS need to exhibit cultural sensitivity by capturing relevant health constructs

across different cultures (Alavi et al., 2025). Cultural perceptions of health differ across different communities

and cultures and hence an assessment tool that is not in tune with this tends to measure something totally

different than intended. For instance, some items in the STSS might not exactly capture how Kenyans express

distress. Two items from the tool worth mentioning are item 1 which says, “I felt emotionally numb” and item

8 which says, “I felt jumpy”. The terms emotionally numb and jumpy may be misinterpreted wrongly, because

they are not common words used in the daily vocabulary of the people. Professionals in the psychological field

are not only concerned about what is happening with a client, we are also trying to articulate the underlying

meanings, beliefs, and cultural frameworks that influence how distress is experienced and expressed (Wright,

2024). Hence the validation of the STSS will better capture how people in the Kenyan context understand and

express traumatic stress.

Another concern is that the theoretical development of the STSS is influenced by Figley’s (1999) argument

that those in the helping profession who consistently encounter people experiencing trauma may also face

some “emotional disruptions”, thereby making them also traumatized. The emotional understanding of distress

is influenced by Western philosophy and hence might not sufficiently capture how distress is expressed in

Kenya. For instance, a study in Kenya (Ferrajao et al., 2024) states that psychological distress such as trauma

and anxiety are often manifested through somatic symptoms. Another study in Kenya by Mutiso et al. (2024)

states that children easily identify somatic symptoms of diseases compared to emotional symptoms. These

studies highlight how the somatic expression of distress is more prominent within the Kenyan population

rather than the recognition of emotional distress. Hence the STSS which leans more towards the recognition of

emotional distress might under-recognize trauma symptoms within the Kenyan population.

A further emphasis on culturally sound tools also takes into consideration the language in which the tools are

presented. Swahili is a national language spoken throughout Kenya as an official language, yet the STSS has

not been adapted to the common language of the people. Some studies within Kenya (Chongwo et al., 2018;

Duffy et al., 2022; Tele et al., 2023) have translated and validated assessment tools which is remarkable. Many

Kenyans express their distress in Swahili or their local dialects, and these expressions of stress, trauma, or

emotions may not have direct English equivalent as captured in Western developed tools. Assessment tools

which fail to account for linguistic and cultural diversity run the risk of producing inaccurate diagnosis which

negatively impact treatment outcomes (Makuvaza, 2024). Tools like the STSS which are not translated may

not capture the intended meaning. Hence, the translation of such tools increases the validity and reliability of

assessment tools, and it also makes the tools accessible to rural and low-literacy population within the country.

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Another area worth of mention is the clinical utility of the STSS, where the current cut-off scores might not

truly be accurate for the Kenyan population. Tele et al. (2023) emphasizes that assessment tools need to be

culturally adapted and clinically validated in different local contexts in order to get appropriate prevalence

estimates and diagnosis. Tools which lack local validation and rely on the cut-off scores set in other cultural

contexts might provide wrong results and waters down the clinical utility of such tools (Fu et al., 2022). The

cut-off scores of the STSS used in the Kenyan studies (Adie et al., 2024, Muchemi and King’ori, 2025) were

based on the original scores set by Bride et al. (2004), thereby raising issues of accuracy of the results

presented. A validation process of the STSS within Kenya will help determine the appropriate cut-off scores in

accurately identifying the prevalence and severity of STS.

Lastly, ethical consideration plays an important role in the development and application of assessment tools.

Wright et al. (2021) reiterates the stance of the APA and its insistence on the importance and necessity of

training and educating psychologists in applying psychological assessments and seven guidelines are given

which include theory, psychometrics, psychological assessment processes, test and method, professionalism,

ethics and legal issues. Hence professionals who use assessment tools such as the STSS should be competent

in the application of psychometric assessments. Psychologists and mental health practitioners should be

adequately trained about the technicalities and interpretation of assessment tools. Anything short of this might

lead to overlooking culturally specific expressions, inappropriate labelling and misinterpretation of results.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PSYCHOMETRICS IN KENYA

The field of psychology is witnessing a formidable growth within Kenya, with an increase in the research and

assessment of psychological conditions. For this growth to be cemented, the practice needs to be built on

evidence-based practices which produces accurate therapeutic outcomes, thereby building more confidence in

the profession. Hence, there is a need for professionals, regulatory authorities, researchers, and learning

institutions to give precedence to the development of indigenous assessment tools attuned to the Kenyan

context. Secondly, attention should be given to validating already existing tools, and it is worth noting that few

tools have already been validated within the Kenyan context such as the Primary Care PTSD care (although

these validated tools make up a tiny fraction). Hence, it is important for researchers and professionals to

undertake validation efforts in order to ground the mental health and psychological field within Kenya on

evidence-based practices.

Therapeutic assessment and interventions are necessary for those who are not conversant with the English

language. Hence, current tools should not only be validated but should be translated into the local dialects

which Kenyans use when expressing distress. This endeavour will foster inclusiveness and build a formidable

health system within the country. To develop a culture of psychometric tool development and validation,

psychometrics needs to be included and encouraged in counselling psychology training syllables and curricula

of academic institutions. This training will set a solid foundation for professionals and will make them

appreciate the importance of basing their practice on evidence-based solutions. By extension, regulatory bodies

(Kenya Counselling and Psychologist Board; Kenya Counselling and Psychology Association etc) should

develop policies and frameworks that ground psychological research and psychometric assessments in

scientific and ethical rigour.

It is important to note that the development of psychometric assessment tools is resource intensive, and this

could explain why this area is less explored within Kenya and Africa in general. Therefore, for this gap to be

bridged, it is important for the ministry of education and research institutes to allocate funding to the

development and validation of psychological psychometric assessment tools. This funding will serve as means

of motivation to researchers who are passionate about embarking on such projects. Lastly, ongoing

professional training and development and supervision are essential in ensuring the sustainability of

psychometric development in Kenya.

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