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Unravelling the Cognitive and Emotional Drivers of Alcohol Consumption
among Adolescents in Namibian Secondary Schools.
Kadonsi Kaziya, Saima N Nakale
Africa Research University, Lusaka, Zambia
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.91100284
Received: 10 November 2025; Accepted: 20 November 2025; Published: 06 December 2025
ABSTRACT
Adolescent alcohol use has become an emerging psychosocial concern across Namibia, reflecting the interplay
between cognitive vulnerabilities, emotional distress, and permissive socio-cultural environments. This study
examined the psychological and emotional mechanisms driving alcohol consumption among secondary school
learners, drawing on the integrated perspectives of social cognitive and ecological theories. Employing a
sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, quantitative data were collected from 250 adolescents in five
schools across the Ohangwena Region, followed by qualitative interviews with 41 educational professionals.
Statistical analysis revealed that low self-efficacy and high perceived stress were significant predictors of
alcohol use, jointly explaining 35% of the variance in consumption frequency. Qualitative narratives
illuminated that adolescents often consume alcohol to regulate stress, achieve social inclusion, and express
emerging adult identities within communities where drinking is culturally normalized. Peer encouragement,
family modelling, and easy accessibility to informal alcohol markets further reinforced these behaviors. The
findings suggest that adolescent drinking in Namibian secondary schools is less a product of moral deviance
and more a cognitive-emotional adaptation to psychosocial strain and social conformity. Interventions must
therefore transcend awareness campaigns and emphasize emotional literacy, stress-coping skills, and
resilience-building within school and community contexts. By unravelling the cognitive and affective drivers
of youth alcohol use, this study contributes a contextually grounded understanding that can inform culturally
responsive prevention frameworks for adolescent well-being in sub-Saharan Africa.
Keywords: Adolescent alcohol use; Cognitive determinants; Emotional regulation; Self-efficacy; Stress and
coping
INTRODUCTION
Adolescence marks a critical period of transition characterized by heightened cognitive, emotional, and social
development. It is during this stage that young people experiment with autonomy, peer relationships, and
identity formation while simultaneously navigating intense psychological pressures. Among the behavioral
risks that accompany this developmental phase, alcohol consumption has emerged as a significant public
health and educational concern across sub-Saharan Africa. The growing normalization of drinking among
adolescents has drawn attention not only because of its association with poor academic performance and health
risks but also because of its deeper psychological and emotional underpinnings (Ebrahim et al., 2024; Kabiru
et al., 2010). Understanding these underlying mechanisms is vital for the formulation of prevention programs
that are contextually sensitive and psychologically grounded.
Globally, adolescent alcohol use has been linked to deficits in emotional regulation, stress management, and
cognitive control domains that are still maturing during adolescence (Steinberg, 2014). Research in
developmental psychology highlights that young people are more susceptible to immediate emotional
gratifications and social reinforcement than to long-term cognitive reasoning, making them particularly
vulnerable to peer pressure and environmental cues (Livingston et al., 2021). In African contexts, this
vulnerability is compounded by socio-economic stress, family instability, and limited access to psychosocial
support systems. As a result, alcohol use among youth often functions as both a coping mechanism and a social
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behavior that symbolizes belonging, maturity, and relief from anxiety (Mathibe et al., 2023; Pokothoane et al.,
2025).
Namibia provides an especially relevant setting for exploring these dynamics. Despite the existence of the
National Alcohol Policy (Republic of Namibia, 2018), adolescent alcohol consumption remains prevalent,
particularly in rural and border regions such as Ohangwena. The easy availability of cheap liquor through
informal trading networks, coupled with the social acceptance of alcohol in community gatherings, creates an
environment in which drinking is not stigmatized but normalized. For many adolescents, alcohol use is woven
into the fabric of social interaction and identity performance. It is a culturally embedded practice that intersects
with psychological needs for stress relief, recognition, and social connectedness (Traditional Leaders’
Perspectives, 2022). These social conditions blur the line between deviant behavior and cultural participation,
demanding a deeper examination of the cognitive and emotional processes that sustain drinking habits among
young people.
Theoretically, this study draws upon Bandura’s (1997) Social Cognitive Theory and Bronfenbrenner’s (1979)
Social Ecological Model, both of which emphasize the interdependence between internal psychological states
and external social environments. Bandura’s framework posits that behavior is shaped by reciprocal
interactions between cognition, emotion, and environment, where self-efficacy an individual’s belief in their
capacity to exercise control over behavior plays a central role. Adolescents with low self-efficacy are less
likely to resist peer influence or cope with emotional strain adaptively, thereby increasing the likelihood of
alcohol use as an avoidance or relief strategy. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model complements this by
situating individual behavior within nested systems of influence—family, peers, school, and culture that
interact dynamically to shape adolescent development. Within this dual framework, adolescent alcohol use can
be conceptualized as the outcome of both cognitive-emotional vulnerability and contextual permissiveness.
Existing studies in sub-Saharan Africa support this integrated perspective. Kabiru et al. (2010) and Mathibe et
al. (2023) found that self-efficacy deficits and exposure to peer models significantly predicted adolescent
drinking behavior. Likewise, Ebrahim et al. (2024) and Pokothoane et al. (2025) reported that emotional
distress and perceived stress were powerful psychological drivers of alcohol use among school-aged youth.
However, the Namibian context remains understudied, particularly with respect to the cognitive and affective
dimensions of drinking. Most available research has focused on prevalence patterns or socio-economic
correlates, leaving a critical gap in understanding why adolescents drink from a psychological standpoint.
Addressing this gap is not only essential for scientific inquiry but also for developing contextually grounded
interventions that align with the realities of Namibian schools and communities.
In light of these considerations, this study seeks to unravel the cognitive and emotional drivers of alcohol
consumption among adolescents in secondary schools in Ohangwena region, Namibia. It investigates how self-
efficacy, stress, and emotional regulation influence drinking behavior and how these internal factors interact
with social and cultural environments to sustain alcohol use. By adopting a mixed-methods approach, the study
integrates statistical and narrative evidence to illuminate the interplay between thought, feeling, and context in
adolescent alcohol behavior. In doing so, it contributes to a deeper, contextually nuanced understanding of
youth drinking that transcends moralistic explanations and informs the design of culturally responsive,
psychologically informed prevention strategies in Namibia and the broader Southern African region.
METHODOLOGY
This study adopted a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design to explore the cognitive and emotional
determinants of adolescent alcohol use within Namibian secondary schools. The design allowed for the
integration of quantitative precision and qualitative depth, ensuring that statistical trends were complemented
by interpretive insights into the lived experiences of adolescents and educators. The quantitative phase
identified the strength and direction of relationships among psychological variables self-efficacy, perceived
stress, and frequency of alcohol consumption—while the qualitative phase illuminated the subjective meanings
and emotional contexts that underpin these behaviors. This methodological combination, grounded in a
pragmatist paradigm, was chosen to capture both the measurable and interpretive dimensions of adolescent
drinking behavior in the Namibian context (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004).
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The study was conducted in the Ohangwena Region of northern Namibia, a border area characterized by dense
youth populations, rural-urban mobility, and the proliferation of informal alcohol markets. The region presents
a unique confluence of socio-economic hardship, cross-border trade, and cultural tolerance toward alcohol use
conditions that provide fertile ground for understanding the intersection between psychological vulnerabilities
and environmental enablers of adolescent drinking. Participants were drawn from seventeen government
secondary schools that reflected varied socio-geographic profiles. The target population comprised learners’
aged 13 to 17 years and educational professionals (Life Skills teachers/ teacher counselors and school
principals).
In the quantitative strand, a sample of 250 learners was selected using a stratified random sampling technique.
Schools were first stratified by type (boarding or day) and location (rural or peri-urban) to ensure diversity of
exposure and experience. Within each school, learners were randomly selected from class registers, following
proportional representation. The sample size was determined using Cochran’s (1977) formula for finite
populations, assuming a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error. Data were collected using a self-
administered questionnaire composed of validated psychological scales. Self-efficacy was measured using
items adapted from the General Self-Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995), while perceived stress
was assessed through the Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen et al., 1983). Alcohol-use frequency and related
behaviors were measured using a modified version of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT)
(Babor et al., 2001). Each instrument demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha
coefficients ranging between 0.80 and 0.86 in the current study.
The qualitative strand involved in-depth interviews with 41 educational professionals purposefully selected for
their experience in learner welfare, discipline, and psychosocial support. Participants included 24 Life Skills
/teacher counselors and 17 school principals. Interviews sought to explore perceptions of adolescent drinking,
the emotional and cognitive factors underlying it, and the ways schools and communities respond to these
patterns. Each interview lasted approximately 45 to 60 minutes and was conducted in English or Oshiwambo,
depending on participant preference. Interviews were audio-recorded with consent and transcribed verbatim.
Data saturation was reached when no new themes emerged (Guest et al., 2020).
Quantitative data were coded and analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 27. Descriptive statistics
summarized demographic and contextual characteristics, while inferential analysis tested the hypothesized
relationships. Pearson’s correlation examined associations between self-efficacy, stress, and alcohol-use
frequency. Multiple regression analysis identified the predictive power of the psychological variables,
controlling for age, gender, and school type. Diagnostic tests were performed to confirm normality, linearity,
and absence of multicollinearity, ensuring the robustness of findings.
The qualitative data were analyzed thematically following the reflexive approach of Braun and Clarke (2021).
Transcripts were carefully read, coded, and categorized into emerging themes that reflected emotional triggers,
social pressures, and cognitive interpretations of alcohol use. Codes were then reviewed and refined through
iterative comparison, and analytic memos were developed to trace conceptual linkages between psychological
determinants and environmental conditions. Rigor was ensured through methodological triangulation, peer
debriefing, and maintenance of a detailed audit trail linking data extracts to interpretive claims.
Integration of quantitative and qualitative findings occurred during interpretation. A joint analytic matrix was
constructed to compare statistical outcomes with thematic patterns, allowing for convergence and
complementarity (Fetters et al., 2013). For instance, quantitative associations between high stress and frequent
drinking were illuminated by qualitative evidence describing alcohol as a coping tool for emotional distress
and identity affirmation. This integrative process enabled a holistic explanation of adolescent drinking
behavior that accounted for both cognitive-emotional mechanisms and contextual influences.
Ethical clearance was obtained from the University of Zambia Humanities and Social Sciences Research
Ethics Committee and the Namibian Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture. Institutional permission was
secured from school administrations, and written consent was obtained from adult participants. For learners
under the age of 18, parental consent and learner assent were both required. Participation was voluntary,
confidentiality was strictly observed, and all identifiers were anonymized in data presentation. The study
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adhered to international ethical principles of respect, beneficence, and non-maleficence, ensuring that all
interactions upheld participants’ dignity and privacy.
RESULTS
The study revealed a multidimensional portrait of adolescent alcohol consumption in Namibian secondary
schools one shaped by interrelated psychological, emotional, and socio-environmental forces. Quantitative
analyses provided an overview of prevalence and predictive relationships, while qualitative insights
illuminated the lived meanings and contextual drivers underlying the behavior.
Among the 250 adolescents who participated in the survey, 46 percent reported having consumed alcohol at
least once in their lifetime, while 28 percent reported current or occasional use during the school term. Males
exhibited slightly higher rates of drinking (49%) compared to females (42%), though the difference was not
statistically significant. Peri-urban learners reported markedly higher alcohol use (38%) than their rural
counterparts (19%), a pattern corroborated by qualitative evidence that linked availability and peer exposure to
urban proximity. Over 60 percent of learners reported that alcohol was easily accessible in their communities,
either through informal markets (shebeens) or family members who brewed or sold alcohol at home.
Psychological variables exhibited strong and consistent relationships with drinking behavior. Pearson’s
correlation coefficients indicated a significant negative association between self-efficacy and alcohol-use
frequency (r = –0.54, p < .01), suggesting that adolescents with lower confidence in their ability to resist peer
or emotional pressures were more likely to drink. Conversely, perceived stress showed a significant positive
association with alcohol use (r = 0.49, p < .01), implying that adolescents who experienced higher levels of
emotional tension and worry were more prone to drinking. Multiple regression analysis confirmed these
findings: low self-efficacy (β = –0.41, p < .001) and high stress (β = 0.36, p < .001) jointly accounted for
approximately 35 percent of the variance in alcohol-use frequency (R² = 0.35, F(4, 245) = 33.41, p < .001).
These effects remained significant after controlling for demographic variables such as gender, age, and school
location, underscoring the robustness of the psychological predictors.
The qualitative findings deepened the statistical picture by illustrating how emotional regulation, self-
perception, and social belonging converge to shape adolescents’ decisions to drink. Teachers and principals
consistently described alcohol use as a mechanism for coping with stress arising from domestic conflict,
poverty, academic failure, and peer ridicule. Learners often reported using alcohol to “forget about home
problems” or to “feel free” among friends. These accounts reflected a self-medicating behavior pattern an
attempt to reduce psychological distress through an accessible and socially tolerated means. Several educators
emphasized that the lack of psychosocial support systems in schools exacerbated this trend: “When learners are
struggling emotionally, there’s nowhere for them to go,” observed one Life Skills teacher. “They find comfort
among peers who are also drinking—it becomes their therapy.”
Beyond stress relief, alcohol consumption was strongly linked to identity performance and peer conformity.
Adolescents, particularly boys, viewed drinking as a marker of maturity, confidence, and modernity.
Participants described scenarios where refusing to drink was interpreted as immaturity or social weakness. One
principal noted, “They think drinking makes them look grown and respected; even those who don’t like the
taste, they drink to fit in.” This finding corresponded with quantitative evidence showing that learners
reporting strong peer encouragement were twice as likely to consume alcohol frequently (χ² = 12.38, p < .01).
The combination of emotional need and social reinforcement created a powerful motivational structure where
alcohol became both an escape and an emblem of belonging.
The qualitative narratives also revealed how family and community environments reinforce these patterns.
Parents and elders were often observed consuming alcohol during social events, creating a tacit acceptance of
drinking as part of everyday life. In some cases, adolescents were sent to purchase alcohol for adults, indirectly
legitimizing the behavior. Community-level tolerance, economic dependency on alcohol trade, and weak
enforcement of age restrictions further normalized underage drinking. A counsellor summarized this paradox
succinctly: “We tell learners that drinking is wrong, but they see it happening everywhere. Our words don’t
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match their reality.” This structural permissiveness, coupled with cognitive vulnerability, positioned alcohol as
both available and acceptable—lowering the psychological barrier to experimentation.
Integration of the quantitative and qualitative data revealed a coherent explanatory model: adolescents with
low self-efficacy and high stress were more likely to internalize social norms that endorse drinking and to use
alcohol as an emotional coping mechanism. In ecological terms, psychological fragility at the individual level
interacted with permissive peer and community systems at the micro- and mesosystem levels, producing a
sustained behavioral pattern. Those with higher self-efficacy and stronger emotional control, by contrast,
demonstrated resistance to peer influence even in high-access environments, suggesting that internal
psychological resources moderate the effects of external pressures.
In essence, the findings portray adolescent alcohol consumption in Namibia not as a simple act of defiance but
as an adaptive response to psychosocial strain within permissive social ecologies. The convergence of
quantitative and qualitative evidence underscores that the roots of adolescent drinking lie as much in cognition
and emotion as in context and culture. Alcohol use becomes a language through which young people articulate
distress, seek recognition, and negotiate belonging an insight that challenges conventional disciplinary and
moralistic responses to youth drinking in African school settings.
DISCUSSION
The findings of this study provide a nuanced understanding of adolescent alcohol use in Namibian secondary
schools by revealing how cognitive, emotional, and environmental forces intertwine to shape behavior. Rather
than viewing adolescent drinking as a singular moral failure, the results point to an adaptive psychological
response embedded within social and cultural ecologies that normalize and even valorize alcohol consumption.
The evidence from this mixed-methods inquiry thus illuminates the internal mechanisms and external contexts
through which Namibian adolescents make sense of, and engage in, alcohol use.
The quantitative data established two robust psychological predictors: low self-efficacy and high perceived
stress. These findings are consistent with Bandura’s (1997) theory of self-efficacy, which posits that
individuals’ beliefs in their ability to control behavior and emotions influence their capacity to resist negative
influences. Adolescents who lack confidence in managing social pressure or coping with emotional distress are
more susceptible to risky behavior. The negative correlation bet ween self-efficacy and alcohol use observed in
this study aligns with prior African research by Kabiru et al. (2010) and Mathibe et al. (2023), which
demonstrated that lower levels of self-belief and self-regulation predict substance use. Similarly, the positive
association between stress and alcohol use supports the stress-coping hypothesis (Cooper et al., 1992),
suggesting that adolescents may resort to alcohol as a maladaptive strategy for emotional relief. In the absence
of adequate psychosocial support, drinking becomes a symbolic form of emotional regulation accessible,
socially reinforced, and instantly gratifying.
Qualitative evidence expanded these statistical patterns by showing how drinking functions as both coping and
communication within adolescent social worlds. Learners often described alcohol as a way to forget problems
or “feel free,” while teacher counsellors interpreted it as an expression of emotional exhaustion and unmet
psychological needs. This reflects what Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems theory predicts: that
individual behavior is not formed in isolation but within nested layers of influence family, peers, school, and
community. Within the micro- and mesosystems of Namibian adolescents, alcohol use acquires meaning as a
shared social language through which distress, belonging, and identity are negotiated. The findings thus
reinforce the notion that psychological vulnerability interacts with environmental permissiveness to sustain
underage drinking.
An equally salient insight concerns the role of peer conformity and identity performance. The qualitative
narratives suggested that adolescents perceive drinking as a sign of adulthood, courage, or modernity. This
aligns with Erikson’s (1968) developmental theory, which situates adolescence as a stage of identity
exploration and social validation. Drinking thus becomes a performative act that signals group inclusion and
maturity. Peer networks in this study were described as both emotional refuges and arenas of pressure, where
refusing to drink risked ridicule or exclusion. The data illustrate Ajzen’s (1991) Theory of Planned Behavior in
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practice: attitudes toward drinking were ambivalent cognitively negative but emotionally reinforced—while
subjective norms (peer approval) and perceived behavioral control (low self-efficacy) combined to predict
consumption. In this way, alcohol use represents the behavioral intersection of cognition, emotion, and social
expectation.
At a broader level, the findings reveal how structural and cultural conditions sustain psychological
vulnerability. The pervasive accessibility of alcohol in informal markets, combined with economic dependence
on shebeens and parental modeling, normalizes drinking at the community level. This normalization blurs
moral boundaries and undermines formal education campaigns that present abstinence as the ideal. Consistent
with the work of Ebrahim et al. (2024) and Freeman et al. (2022), this study demonstrates that in contexts of
poverty and limited recreational opportunities, adolescents’ engagement with alcohol is as much a response to
constrained life options as it reflects personal choice. It is through such lenses that youth drinking in Namibia
must be understood not as a rejection of social order but as an adaptation to environments that fail to meet
emotional and developmental needs.
Taken together, these findings call for a reconceptualization of adolescent alcohol use as a cognitive-emotional
adaptation to stress within permissive social ecologies. This perspective challenges conventional school and
policy responses that rely primarily on moral appeals or disciplinary sanctions. Punitive approaches may
suppress symptoms temporarily but rarely address the structural and psychological roots of behavior. What
emerges from this study is a need for interventions that build psychological resilience particularly self-efficacy,
emotional literacy, and stress-coping capacity while simultaneously reshaping social environments to reduce
accessibility and peer normalization.
Schools can serve as primary sites for such transformation. Life Skills education and counselling programs,
when restructured to include experiential learning, peer mentorship, and group therapy models, can help
adolescents develop healthier coping mechanisms. Teachers, often the first point of contact for distressed
learners, require continuous professional development in adolescent mental health and motivational
interviewing to respond constructively to emotional distress. At the community level, collaborative
engagement with traditional leaders, parents, and youth groups can rebuild social accountability systems that
limit underage drinking and offer safe, meaningful alternatives for recreation and belonging.
The theoretical implications of this study extend beyond Namibia. By integrating social cognitive and
ecological frameworks, the research contributes to a broader African discourse that reinterprets adolescent risk
behavior as a dynamic interaction between mind, emotion, and context. In societies where poverty, limited
psychosocial resources, and cultural permissiveness co-exist, interventions that ignore these systemic
conditions are unlikely to succeed. The Namibian case thus illustrates a more general truth about adolescent
behavior in low-resource settings: that youth are not merely passive victims of social influence but active
agents negotiating identity, stress, and belonging through the cultural tools available to them including alcohol.
In sum, the findings suggest that adolescent alcohol use is best understood as an emotionally intelligent but
maladaptive coping strategy a means of self-soothing and social alignment in environments of psychological
strain and structural neglect. Effective prevention, therefore, must be human-centered, context-sensitive, and
psychologically grounded. By embracing this integrative perspective, educators, policymakers, and mental-
health practitioners can move toward interventions that empower rather than punish, educate rather than
moralize, and ultimately foster environments where adolescents can develop agency and resilience without
resorting to alcohol as a tool for survival or self-expression.
CONCLUSION
This study has illuminated the cognitive and emotional foundations of adolescent alcohol use within Namibian
secondary schools, revealing that young people’s engagement with alcohol is deeply rooted in their
psychological experiences and socio-cultural environments. Far from being a purely behavioral problem,
adolescent drinking emerged as a dynamic response to emotional distress, social conformity, and identity
negotiation within communities where alcohol consumption is normalized. The integration of quantitative and
qualitative findings demonstrated that low self-efficacy and high perceived stress are the most salient
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cognitive-emotional predictors of drinking, while peer encouragement, parental modeling, and community
permissiveness provide the environmental scaffolding that sustains the behavior.
Through the combined application of Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory and Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological
Systems Model, the study provides a framework for understanding adolescent alcohol use as both an internal
psychological process and a socially situated act. The findings emphasize that adolescents drink not merely
because alcohol is available, but because it offers a means of coping, belonging, and self-expression in the face
of stress, uncertainty, and limited psychosocial support. This understanding reframes adolescent drinking from
a disciplinary concern to a developmental and emotional health issue that demands empathetic, evidence-based
interventions.
To effectively address adolescent alcohol consumption, prevention programs must move beyond awareness
campaigns and punitive measures toward psychologically informed and contextually grounded approaches.
Schools should integrate emotional literacy, self-efficacy training, and peer mentoring into Life Skills and
guidance curricula, while equipping teachers with basic competencies in adolescent mental health support. At
the community level, partnerships between educators, parents, and traditional authorities are vital to curbing
informal alcohol availability and reshaping cultural norms that implicitly endorse underage drinking. Such
strategies should be anchored in local realities, recognizing that sustainable change must come through
culturally resonant forms of education and engagement rather than external moral imposition.
In broader theoretical terms, the study contributes to the emerging African scholarship on adolescent
psychology by highlighting how cognition, emotion, and environment co-construct behavioral outcomes. It
underscores the need for interventions that nurture resilience, foster self-regulation, and promote positive
identity formation. Future research could extend this work through longitudinal designs that trace
developmental trajectories of alcohol use, as well as intervention studies assessing the impact of school-based
psychosocial programs.
Ultimately, reducing adolescent alcohol consumption in Namibia will depend on creating ecosystems of
emotional safety, social inclusion, and opportunity — environments where young people can experience
belonging, competence, and agency without resorting to alcohol as a substitute for well-being. By unraveling
the cognitive and emotional drivers of adolescent drinking, this study offers not only a theoretical contribution
but also a practical pathway toward more compassionate, contextually relevant, and psychologically
sustainable prevention strategies for Namibia and the wider sub-Saharan region.
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